com- 
)f  its 
>  the 


itical 


SY. 
■ING, 


New  editions  of  the  Primary,  Common  School,  Hi^h  School,  Academic  and 
Counting  House  Dictionaries  have  recently  been  issued,  all  of  which  are 
numerously  illustrated. 

~  A  Iso  : 

IVebsier's  Pocket  Dictionary.  —  A 
pictorial  abridgment  of  the  quario. 

Websfcr's  Army  and  Navy  Dickin- 
ARY. — By  Captain  E.  C.  Bov.foc, 
of  West  Point  Military  Acadt  m'-. 


School   Diction- 

DlCTION- 


li^ebsters   Primary 

AKY 

Webster  s  Common   School 

ARY. 

Webster  s  High  School  Dictionary. 
Webster'' s  Academic  Dictionary. 
Webster's  Counting-House  and  Fam- 
ily Dictionary. 


Ivison,  Blakcman,   Taylor  £*?  Go's  PuUkdl'um's. 


KERL'S   STANDARD    ENGLISH   GRAiv^MARS: 


For  more  of  originality,  practicality 
are  recommended  over  others. 
Kekl's  Fikst  Lkssons  in  Gkammar. 
Kkrl's  Common  School  Grammar. 
Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar. 

Recently  issued  : 

Kerl's  Composition  and  Rhetoric. — 
A  simple,  concise,  progressive, 
thorough,  and  practical  work  on  a 
new  plan. 

Kerl's   Shorter  Course  in   English 


and  completeness,  KerVs*  Grammars' 

Grammar.— Designed  for  S(  hoo'.s 
where  only  one  text-book  is  us-d. 

IVe  also  publish  : 

Sill's  New  Synthesis  ;  or,  Elementary 
Grammar. 

Sill's  Blank  Parsing  Book.— To  ac- 
company above. 

Wells'  (VV.  H.)  School  Grammar. 

Wells'  Elementary  Grammar. 


GRAY'S    BOTANICAL    TEXT-BOOKS. 

These  standard  text-books  are  recognized  throughout  this  country  and 
Europe  as  the  most  complete  and  accurate  of  any  similar  works  published. 
They  are  more  extensively  used  than  all  others  combined. 

Gyays  "  How  Plants  Grow."  I  Gray's  Manual  with  Mosses,  &c.    II- 

Grafs  Lessons  in  Botany.  302  Draw-  lustrated. 

ings.  '  I  Gray's  Field,   Forest    and    Garden 

Gray  s   School  and   Field    Book  of  |         Botany. 

Botany.  Grays   Structural    and    Systematic 

Grays  Manual  of  Botany.  20  Plates.  1         Botany. 
Gray's  Lessons  and  Manual.  !  Flora  of  the  Southern  States. 

Gray's  Botanist's  Microscope.     2  Lenses. 


WILLSON'S    HISTORIES. 

Famous  as  being  the  most  perfectly  graded  of  any  before  the  publi 


Primary  American  Histoi^y. 
History  of  the  United  Statps. 
American  History.    School  Edition. 
Outlines  of  General  History.  School 
Edition. 


Outlines  of  General  History.  Uni- 
versity Edition. 

Willson's  Chart  of  American  His- 
tory. 

Parley's  Universal  History 


WELLS'    SCIENTIFIC    SERIES. 

Containing  the  latest  researches  in  Physical  science,  and   their  practical 
application  to  every-day  life,  and  is  still  the  best. 


Sjience  of  Common  Things. 
Natural  Philosophy. 
Principles  of  Chemistry. 
First  Principles  of  Geology. 


Ab0: 
Hitchcock's  An.\tomy  and  Physiology. 
Hitchcock's  Elementary  Geology. 
Eliot  £3'  Storer's  Chemistry, 


F.\SQUELLE'S    FRENCH    COURSE 

Has  had  a  success  unrivaled  in  this  country,  having  passed  through  more 

than  fifty  editions,  and  is  still  the  best. 

Fasq'.ielie  s    Introductory    French  Fasquelle's  Dumas'  Napoleon. 

Course.  Fasquelle's  Racine. 

Fasq  lelle's    Larger     French    Course.     Fasquelle's  Manual  of   French    Con- 
Revised,  versation. 

Fasquelle's  Key  to  the  Above.  Howard's    Aid    to   French    Composi- 

Fasquel'e's  Colloquial  French  Reader.  tion. 

Fasquelle's  Telemaque.  Talbot's  French  Pronunciation. 


"7>vu  J^fA/i^ ' 


>•  •  •        • 
•  •    •         • 


A 


COMMON-SCHOOL  GRiMIiE= 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE, 


BT 

SIMON     KERL,   A.M., 

AOTHOB    OF  "  COMPREUSNSIVB  ni^AMMAH,"    "  FIRET  LESSONS  IN  GRAMMAR,"  ETC. 


Sacred  Interpreter  of  human  thought. 

How  few  respect  or  use  thee  as  they  onsht !  *• 

CowPKB,  on  Languagcm 


IVISON,   BLAKEMAK,   TAYLOE,   &  CO. 

NEW  YORK:  CHICAGO: 

138  &  140  GRAND  ST.  133  &  135  STATE  ST. 


z:3UCATION  DEPT/ 

'■■'  TO    THE    TEACHER, 


You  can  not  teach  any  science  successfully,  nnless  you  are  perfectly 
familiar  with  your  text -book.  Even  if  you  understand  the  general 
subject,  it  will  be  well  for  you  to  study  every  evening  the  lesson 
which  you  expect  to  hear  the  next  day  :  for  you  will  thus  be  enabled 
to  make  the  recitations  much  more  instructive  and  interesting.  The 
first  33  pages  of  this  book  are  designed  for  the  teacher  as  well  as  for 
the  pupil ;  and  these  pages  may  be  compared  to  a  garden  that  is 
filled  with  a  comprehensive  assortment  of  plants  arranged  in  natural 
order,  through  which  the  pupils  are  led  as  observers  before  they  are 
required  to  botanize.  You  may  simply  talk  over  these  pages  to  your 
class, — explain,  analyze,  and  parse,  while  you  require  them  to  pay 
the  closest  attention  to  what  you  say.  It  will  be  also  well  to  present 
with  this  part  a  series  of  blackboard  exercises,  according  to  the  sug- 
gestions given  at  the  end  of  the  book 

The  next  36  pages  may  be  taught  as  you  find  them  ;  though  it  is 
not  necessary  to  commit  more  to  memory  than  will  satisfy  the  ques- 
tions on  page  57.  The  next  171  pages  should  not  be  learned  com- 
pletely at  first ;  but  only  so  much  ehould  be  taken  as  will  suffice  for 
parsing  and  analysis  This  amount  will  comprise  only  the  defini- 
tions of  the  parts  of  speech,  their  classes,  and  their  properties  ,  the 
declension,  the  list  of  irregular  verbs,  and  the  conjugation  ;  the  rules 
*^f  syntax,  the  formulas  for  parsing,  and  a  mere  outline  of  analysis. 
Now  let  the  pupils  daily  analyze  and  parse  the  exercises  from  page 
241  to  page  276.  unfolding  every  thing  carefully  in  the  order  In  which 
the  exercises  are  given  .  and  at  the  same  time  let  them  review  again 
and  again  pages  70-240,  in  connection  with  this  daily  drilling.  The 
remainder  of  the  book  can  be  easily  conquered  after  this  middle  part 
is  mastered. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18G5,  by 

Simon    Kekl 

In  the  Clerk'9  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

Simon     Keui,. 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  Diitrict  of  New  York. 


PRETACE. 


"Language,"  said  Shericlan,  "is  the  great  instrument  by  which  all  tb-^ 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  brought  forward,  moulded,  and  polished."  He 
who  travels  over  our  extensive  country  can  easily  observe  that  wherever 
the  people  have  a  limited  and  obscure  knowledge  of  language,  there  all 
the  other  elements  of  civilization  and  refinement  are  in  a  correspondingly 
undeveloped  state ;  but  that  wherever  a  home  is  surrounded  by  the  beau- 
ties of  nature  and  art,  there  is  also  generally  heard  such  language  as 
reveals  the  presence  of  literature  and  the  cultivation  of  thought  and 
sensibility. 

Language  is  at  once  the  most  useful,  powerful,  delicate,  and  durable 
instrument  wielded  by  man.  It  materializes  thought,  so  as  to  make  it 
tangible,  permanent,  and  transmissible ;  and  it  thus  carries  civilization  into 
every  nook  and  corner  of  the  world.  It  receives  the  intellect,  heart,  and 
achie'.-emcnts  of  every  generation ;  and  bears  forward  the  responsible  bur- 
den to  be  judged  by  every  future  generation.  While  the  marble  crumbles, 
and  the  canvas  fades,  an  embodiment  of  great  thoughts  in  glorious  language 
lives  through  all  time;  renewing  its  youth,  like  the  phoenix,  with  every  edi* 
tion  from  the  printing-press,  and,  like  the  sun,  spreading  its  light  and  be- 
neficence round  the  whole  globe. 

But  how  many  literary  productions  are  more  or  less  disfigured  with 
inac(!uracics  of  grammar;  and  what  an  injurious  influence  is  often  exerted 
on  the  language  of  the  people,  by  the  hasty  and  crude  literature  of  the 
daily  press  !  How  often  do  men  express  their  thoughts,  even  on  important 
occasions,  inaccurately,  obscurely,  ambiguously,  or  ridiculously;  and  what 
a  multitude  of  bickerings,  lawsuits,  and  contentions  arise  from  language 
misapplied  or  misunderstood  !  It  was  the  opinion  of  a  late  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States,  that  the  people  of  this  country  pay  at  least 
twenty  millions  of  dollars  a  year  for  the  abuse  of  the  English  language  in 
matters  of  contract  and  legislation  alone. 

Till  the  excellent  treatise  of  Murray  made  its  appearance,  the  study  of 
English  grammar  had  hardly  become  a  branch  of  common-school  educa- 
tion ;  but  since  that  time  the  importanco  of  the  science  has  l>een  so  far 
established  in  the  convictions  of  the  public,  that  grammar  is  now  every- 
where one  of  the  leading  studies  in  common  schools.  Corresponding  text- 
books have  constantly  increased,  until  we  have  a  superabundance  ;  yet 
there  is  doubtless  always  room  for  an  impravcd  system  in  every  science. 

&4 ! 1 OS 


IV  PREFACE. 

Most  readers  prefer  to  ascertain  the  plan  and  contents  of  a  book  by 
simply  turning  over  its  leaves ;  but  the  following  features  of  this  treatise 
are  some  of  those  which  the  author  has  endeavored  to  make  worthy  of 
special  notice :  — 

1.  The  simple  and  scientific  nature  of  the  general  plan,  and  the  method- 
ical arrangement  of  matter  throughout  the  book. 

2.  The  clearness,  brevity,  and  uniformity  of  the  definitions. 

3.  The  abundance  and  appropriateness  of  the  illustrations  and  exercises. 

4.  The  careful  development  of  every  part  in  proportion  to  its  impor- 
tance; so  that  the  book  is  unusually  symmetrical  and  comprehensive. 

5.  The  introduction  of  the  historical  element  of  our  language ;  and  the 
careful  regard  for  those  laws  which  underlie  the  fabric  of  language,  and 
make  it  what  it  is. 

6.  The  treatment  of  infinitives  and  participles. 

7.  The  Rules  of  Syntax,  in  regard  to  both  meaning  and  brevity. 

8.  The  collection  of  idioms  and  other  difficult  constructions. 

9.  The  system  of  Analysis,  and  the  progressive  development  of  sen- 
tences according  to  its  principles. 

10.  The  classification  of  False  Syntax  ;  and  the  lessening  of  so  great  a 
nnmber  of  little  rules,  which  are  seldom  learned  and  always  soon  forgotten. 

11.  The  critical  remarks  on  syntax,  punctuation,  and  capital  letters. 

12.  The  superior  mechanical  execution  of  the  work. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  matter  has  been  carefully  distinguished 
by  different  sizes  of  type ;  and  what  is  designed  only  for  reading  or  refer- 
ence, has  been  placed  at  the  end  of  each  Part,  or  so  distinguished  from  the 
portions  to  bo  committed  to  memory  as  not  to  embarrass  the  learner  or 
distract  his  attention.  The  pages  to  be  studied  make  thus  but  a  compara- 
tively small  book.  Yet  for  those  pupils  Avho  may  need  a  smaller  or  an 
introductory  treatise,  a  book  called  "  First  Lessons  in  English  Grammar," 
and  made  on  the  same  plan  as  this  work,  has  been  expressly  prepared. 

If  any  teacher  wishes  his  pupils  to  "  analyze  and  parse  "  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, he  can  require  them  to  commit  the  Rules  of  Syntax  to  memory,  and 
he  can  then  drill  them,  as  they  advance  from  the  commencement  of  the 
book,  on  the  sentences  which  begin  page  241. 

Brevity  has  been  constantly  studied ;  and  great  care  has  been  taken  to 
make  this  grammar  as  simple,  progressive,  and  interesting  as  such  a  book 
can  be  made  without  injuring  its  scientific  value. 

In  closing  this  Preface,  the  author  desires  to  express  his  grateful  ao- 
knowledgment  for  valuable  suggestions  received  from  the  Masters  of  the 
Boston  Public  Schools  ;  of  whom  he  would  especially  mention  Daniel  C 
Brown,  Joshua  Bates,  and  James  A.  Page,  as  the  gentlemen  to  whom 
he  is  mostly  indebted. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations, 337 

Accent,  ....  39,  59,  325,  336 
Adjectives,  6, 108;  Definitive,  108,  115 
Adjectives,  irregular,  List  of,     .     176 

Adjuncts, 178,  309 

Adverbs,  .  7,  172 ;  List  of,  .  176 
Analysis  of  Sentences,  .  .  .  227 
Analysis    and    Parsing,    Exer- 

cibes, 241-275 

Apposition, 100,  211 

Arrangement  of  Words,  .  .  260,  308 
Articles,      .    .      4,  105,  279,  282,  300 

Articulation, 334 

Brackets, 343 

Cases, 12,  95,  292 

Clauses, 18,  229,  239 

Colon, 337 

Comma, 339 

Comparison,  Degrees  of,  10,  109,  279 
Compound  Words,  .  .  66,  260,  344 
Conjugation,  -.,....  160 
Conjunctions,    9, 182;  List  of,  .    185 

Connectives, 238 

CoiTBlatives,     .......    186 

Dash S42 

Declension, 102 

Derivation  of  Words,    ...    64,  66 

.  Discourse, 227 

Ellipsis,       214,319 

Emphasis, 335 

Equivalent  Expressions,    .    .    .    257 

Etymology, 35,  66 

P^xclamation-Point, 341 

False  Syntax, 276,  311 

Figures  of  Orthography,   .    .    .    318 

Figures  of  Syntax, 319 

Figxires  of  Rhetoric,      ....    321 

Formulas, 198, 262 

Genders,      ....    10,81,216,314 

Grammar, 34,  58 

Idioms, 209 

Independent  Element,   ....    238 

Infinitives, 151,  217,  307 

Interjections,    ....       9, 187,  217 

Interrogatiouf  Point, 341 

Inversion,    .......      217, 320 

Italics, 345 

Letters,      .  35,  60;  Capital,  .     41,61 

Modifiers, 233 

Moods, 14,  131,  219 

Nouns, 2,  71,  220 

Numbers,     .  12,  86,  142,  220,  295,  315 


^.  .  PAGB 

Observations,  .    ,      58,  209,  311,  346 

Orthography, 34 

Paragraph," 228 

Parsing, 198,261 

Participles,  ....  154,  221,  307 
Parts  of  Speech,  .    .    .    .    1,  70,  209 

i'auses, 330,335,336 

Period, 337 

Persons, 11,  85,  142,  309 

Phrases, 18,  239 

Pleonasm, 95,  222,  320 

Poetry, 34G 

Poetic  Licenses, 332 

Predicates, .5, 232 

Prefixes, 54, 345 

Prepositions,  8,  178,  285;  List  of,  181 
Pronouns,    ....      3,  73,  293,  303 

Pronunciation, 35,  68 

Properties,  Grammatical,  ...  2 
Properties  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  81 
Properties  of  Verbs,      ....    129 

Prosody, 35,  318 

Punctuation,. 336 

Quantitv, 327 

Questions,   .    .    57,116,188,275,360 

Quotation-^Iarks, 336 

Roots  of  Words, 64,  66 

Rules, 60,  190,  222,  292 

Scanning, 333 

Semicolon, 338 

Sentences,  18,229;  Elements  of,  231 
Sentences,  Classes  of,  ...  .  240 
Sentences,    how  contracted   or 

abridged, 256 

Spelling,    .    50,  65 ;  Rules  of,    .      50 

Subjects, 4,  232 

Suffixes, 64 

Syllables, 48,65 

Syntax,    85,  276 ;  Rules  of,    190,292 

Tenses, 15,  136,  306 

Tenses,  Forms  of, 140 

Tones, 335 

Utterance, 334 

Verbs,  .  4,  119;  Classes  of,  .  120 
Verbs,  Auxiliary,  .  .  .  128,  148 
Verbs,  Impersonal,  .  .  .  148,  217 
Verbs,  Irregular,  List  of,  .  .  .  121 
Verbs,  Number  of,  .  .  .  142,  295 
Verbs,  Person  of,      ...       142,  295 

Versification, .     325 

Voices, 13,  129,  316 

Words, 1,  53.  60 


For  nice  points,  see  Observations,  pp.  58,  209,  311,  346. 


SYNOPSIS. 


Part  I.— -An  Outlino  tor  Beginners. 

This  Part  shows  the  connection  between  thought  and  languagio,  and  how 
the  latter  is  developed  from  a  fow  great  or  fundamental  ideas.  It  contains  a 
familiar  explanation  of  the  chief  ideas  in  grammar,  which  is  followed  by  a 
series  of  exercises  that  show  the  general  construction  of  sentences. 

for  a  iiiode  of  using  these  exercises,  the  teacher  may  consult  Kerl's  "  First  Lessons.'* 

Part  II.  — Words  Uneombined. 

This  Part  begins  with  a  presentation  of  the  subject  and  its  divisions  j  it 
then  treats  of  lettei's,  elementary  sounds,  accent,  pronunciation,  syllables, 
spelling,  and  derivation,  or  it  teaches  what  can  be  learned  about  words  before 
they  are  combined  in  sentences. 

Part  III.  —  Words  Grammatically  Combined. 

This  Part  shows  what  we  must  learn  about  words  in  order  to  know  hoTT 
they  should  be  put  together  to  make  sentences.  It  treats  of  the  parts  of  speech 
and  their  properties,  the  rules  of  syntax,  and  parsing  i,  or  it  shows  into  what 
classes  we  must  divide  words,  and  what  jointuigs  we  must  make,  or  by  what 
ideas  we  must  be  governed,  in  order  to  put  words  rightly  together  in  sentences. 

Part  IV.  —  Words  Logically  Combined. 

This  Part  supposes  that  the  jointings  and  small  combinations  of  words  are 
already  made ;  and  that  we  are  now  ready  to  put  the  larger  parts  together  so 
as  to  get  sentences  for  all  kinds  of  thoughts.  It  therefore  treats  of  phrases 
and  clauses,  as  well  as  of  words;  of  subjects,  predicates,  modifiers,  councc- 
tives,  simple  sentences,  complex  sentences,  and  compound  sentences. 

Part  v.  — Words  Improperly  Combined. 

This  Part  treats  of  the  errors  which  can  arise  under  both  the  preceding 
Parts.  It  implies  that  there  may  be  some  excess,  deficiency,  wrong  choos- 
ing, or  improper  arrangement,  in  regard  to  the  words  which  are  to  show 
precisely  what  we  mean. 

Part  VI.  —  Ornament  and  Finish. 

This  Part  supposes  that  we  have  already  learned  to  express  thoughts 
intelligibly  and  correctly,  but  that  we  now  seek  to  express  them  in  the  most 
interesting  and  Impressive  manner;  or  it  shows  by  what  means  thoughts  are 
imparted  to  the  best  advantage.  Hence  it  treats  of  figures,  versification, 
utterance,  and  punctuation. 

^^- 

Remarlcs.  —  |  denotes  separation.    *=  is  placed  between  equivalent  expressions. 

A  number  placed  over  a  word  shows  which  Rule  of  Syntax  should  be  applied  to  it. 

W  means  wrong:  sentences  beginning  with  this  letter  are  to  be  corrected. 

What  is  to  be  committed  to  memory  by  the  pupil,  is  printed  in  large  type,  or  is  distin* 
guished  by  being  numbered  with  heavy  black  figures. 

The  few  technical  or  difficult  words  which  we  have  been  obliged  to  use,  the  teacher 
should  explain  ;  or  he  should  give  out  a  number  of  them  to  the  pupils  from  time  to  time, 
and  require  them  to  learn  the  meanings  in  some  large  dictionary. 


^ngHsiIi  6viTmmiiiv 


-3BSH 


PART    I. 

••  I.  am.  convinced  that  tlie  method  of  teacliing 
•W^h-icli  approaches  most  nearly  to  the  anethod  of 
invpstisation,  is  incomparably  the  "best;  since,  not 
content  -with  scrvins:  up  a  Tew  barren  and  lifeless 
truths,  it  leads  to  the  stalk  on  'which  they  groAV." 

Burke. 

THOUGHT    AND  ITS   EXPRESSION. 

1.    "We  thinJc,  or  have  thoughts, 
2*    We  express  our  thoughts  by  means  of  words, 
8«    Words  are  either  spoken  or  written. 
4*    The  expressing  of  our  thoughts  by  means  of  words, 
is  called  language.,  or  speech. 

5.  Language  is  made  to  suit  the  world,  and  consists 
of  many  thousands  of  words ;  but,  like  trees  or  persons, 
they  can  all  be  divided  into  a  small  number  of  classes. 

6.  To  express  our  thoughts,  we  use  nine  classes  of 
words,  which  are  therefore  called  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

7.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are  JVouns,  Pronouns,  Ar- 
tides,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunc- 
tions, and  Interjections. 

8.  To  these  nine  classes  of  words  belong  eight  chief 

1  A 


'2  \c'    i  Wl  i    [      ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

;j^O]?et{Ks<;   G-^der;  Person^  J^umher,  Case,  Voice,  Iloody 
^fense,  tina'Oompariso7i, 

9.  These  classes  of  words,  and  tlieir  properties,  are 
based  mainly  on  the  following  ten  things  or  ideas :  Ob- 
jects, Actions,  Qualities,  Sex,  Number,  Relation,*  Man- 
ner, Time,  Place,  and  Degree, 

Let  us  now  see  by  what  natural  process  we  shall  get  thoughts, 
and  then  words  to  express  them. 

Parts  of  Speech. 

NOUNS. 

"When  we  look  around  us,  we  naturally  first  notice  objects. 
The  words  John,  Mary^  tree^  house,  street,  man,  horse,  apple, 
Jlower,  rose,  chair,  desk,  book,  paper,  pencil,  are,  all  of  them, 
words  that  denote  objects,  and  such  words  are  called  nouns. 

10.  A  Noun  is  a  name. 

Tell  what  trees  grow  in  the  woods.  What  flowers  grow  in 
gardens  ?  "What  animals  are  on  farms  ?  What  things  can 
boys  eat  ?  What  things  do  children  play  with  ?  What  objects 
did  you  see  this  morning,  on  your  way  to  school  ?  Who  are 
your  classmates  ?  What  would  you  call  the  words  you  have 
mentioned  ? 

You  can  generally  tell  whether  a  word  is  a  noun  or  not,  by 
considering  whether  it  denotes  something  that  you  can  see, 
hear,  taste,  smell,  or  feel,  or  think  of  as  being  a  person  or 
thing. 

PRONOUNS. 

When  objects  are  near  to  us,  or  already  known  by  having 
been  mentioned,  we  do  not  always  use  their  names,  bnt  cer- 

*  Considered  here  chiefly  as  applied  to  Case  and  Person. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH.   ;    :;;;',.'  ;8l 

tain  little  words  in  stead  of  the  name^.' '  lf,T,ssi^;.**'W'ii\ifLih, 
promised  Mary  that  William  would  fend'  •J^^'y  Wlllfarti's 
grammar,  that  Mary  might  study  the  grammar,"  you  can  easily 
see  that  the  sentence  is  clumsy  and  disagreeable,  because  I 
have  repeated  the  words  William^  Mary^  and  grammar.  But  if  I 
say,  "  William  promised  Mary  that  he  would  lend  her  his  gram- 
mar, that  she  might  study  it,"  you  notice  that  the  sentence  is 
much  more  simple  and  agreeable,  because  I  have  used  the  little 
words  he,  she,  and  it,  for  the  nouns  William,  Mary,  and  gram- 
mar, in  stead  of  repeating  these  nouns.  Pronoun  means  for  a 
noun ;  and  pronouns  are  so  called  because  they  are  used  for 
nouns,  or  in  stead  of  nouns, 

11  •   A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

The  most  common  pronouns  are  I,  my,  myself,  mine,  me,  we, 
our,  ourselves,  ours,  us,  you,  your,  yourself,  yours,  ye,  thou,  thy, 
thyself,  thine,  thee,  he,  his,  him,  himself,  she,  her,  herself,  /wrs,  if, 
itself,  its,  they,  theirs,  them,  themselves,  who,  whose,  whom,  which, 
and  that.  The  easiest  way  in  which  you  can  generally  dis- 
tinguish a  pronoun  from  a  noun,  is  to  consider  whether  the 
word  denotes  an  object,  without  being  itself  the  name  of  the 
object.  "  /  saw  you."  Here  /  denotes  me,  without  being  my 
name ;  and  you  denotes  the  person  spoken  to,  without  being 
his  name. 

Put  suitable  pronouns  for  the  words  in  Italic  letters:  — 

John  has  learned  John's  lesson.  Mary  has  torn  Mary's 
book.  The  apple  lay- under  the  apple's  tree.  The  apples  lay 
under  the  apples'  tree.  Thomas  has  come  home,  and  Thomas 
is  well.  Lucy  is  pretty,  and  Lucy  knows  it.  The  gun  was 
brought,  but  the  gun  was  out  of  order.  Laura  was  disobedient, 
and  therefore  Laura's  teacher  punished  Laura.  Julia  will  buy 
you  a  basket,  if  Julia  can  buy  the  basket  cheap.  Joseph  and 
Mary  went  to  meet  Joseph  and  Mary's  father,  but  Joseph  and 
Mary's  father  came  another  way. 


■  i^'  '%/  I  i.'i  •    '•   ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

:'''r3'!'s^'  "f  I.ciA  ...'ARTICLES. 

Most  objects  exist  in  classes ;  and  when  vre  use  merely  the 
ordinary  name  of  something,  we  generally  mean  the  class  or 
object  at  large  or  indefinitely ;  as,  tree,  apples,  water.  To  show 
that  we  mean  only  one  object  of  a  kind,  and  no  particular  one, 
or  that  we  mean  some  particular  object  or  objects,  we  generally 
place  the  word  a  or  an,  or  the,  before  the  name  ;  as,  a  tree, 
ike  tree,  the  trees.  If  I  say,  "  Give  me  a  book,  an  apple,"  you 
understand  that  any  book  or  apple  will  answer  my  purpose ; 
but  if  I  say,  "  Give  me  the  book,  the  books,"  you  understand 
that  I  want  some  particular  book  or  books.  These  words,  a  or 
an  and  the,  which  are  very  often  used  before  nouns,  and  which 
generally  show  how  we  select  the  objects  of  which  we  are 
speaking,  are  called  articles, 

12.  An  Article  is  the  word  the,  a,  or  an,  placed  be- 
fore a  noun  to  limit  its  moaninij. 

Place  A  before  each  of  the  following  nouns ;  then  the  :  — 

Man,  book,  pen,  boy,  parrot,  pink,  school-house,  newspaper. 

Place  AN  bffore  each  oftliefollowinj  nouns;  then  THE  :  — 

Ax,  eagle,  Indian,  ox,  owl,  arbor,  undertaker. 

VERBS. 

"We  can  not  think  of  an  object,  without  thinking  something 
of  it.  Therefore  every  thought  or  saying  implies  at  least  two 
things ;  something  of  which  we  think  or  speak,  and  something 
that  we  think  or  say  of  it:  the  former  is  called  the  suhjecty 
and  the  latter  the  pred'icate.  "Rivers  flow";  here  rivers  is 
the  subject,  and  Jlow  is  the  predicate.  "  Deep  rivers  flow  j 
smoothly  " ;  here  deep  rivers  is  the  subject,  and  Jlow  smoothly 
is  the  predicate. 

13.  A  Subject  is  a  word  or  expression  denoting  that  of 
which  something  is  said. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH.     ',.'  ^  '.  ^      •    ^  5 

14.  A  Predicate  is  a  word  or  phiusfe' denoting  Vliat 
Is  said  of  the  subject. 

15.  A  Proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with  its 
predicate. 

When  we  speak  of  any  object,  we  generally  tell  either  what 
it  is,  what  it  docs,  or  what  is  done  to  it. 

1.  Flowers  are  beautifuL     The  ant  is  an  insect. 

2.  Birds  sing.     Boys  play.     Carpenters  build  houses. 

3.  Fields  are  ploughed.     The  corn  was  ground. 

The  words  arc,  is,  sing,  plag,  build,  etc.,  by  means  of  which 
wc  say  things  of  the  subjects,  are  called  verbs. 

13.  A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  act  or 
state  of  a  subject. 

"  The  river  washes  away  the  soil " ;  here  washes  is  a  verb, 
because  it  tells  what  the  river  does.  "  The  river  is  deep  " ; 
here  ts  is  a  verb,  because  it  tells  something  of  the  river,  or 
helps  to  show  in  what  state  it  is.  Sometimes  we  say  that  the 
verb  affirms  or  predicates  something  of  its  subject.  This  is 
nearly  the  came  as  to  tell  you  that  it  says  something  of  that 
about  which  we  arc  talking.  "\Vc  arc  sometimes  obliged  to  use 
hard  words  in  books,  for  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy  or  exact- 
ness. By  dressing  soldiers  in  a  different  style  from  that  in 
which  citizens  are  dressed,  we  can  easily  distinguish  them  from 
citizens.  So  every  science  has  generally,  in  its  words,  a  dress 
of  its  own. 

Mention  the  subjects,  the  predicates,  the  verbs  of  the  predicates,  and  why:  — 

Frogs  leap.  Fishes  swim.  The  wind  v^histles.  The  thun- 
der rolls.  The  lightning  flashed.  Clouds  were  moving.  lie 
recited  his  lesson.  The  door  creaked.  The  snake  crept  into 
the  grass.  Out  flew  the  partridges.  Lilies  and  roses  were 
blooming  together. 

Put  a  suitable  subject  to  each  of  the  followinj  predicates  :  — 

Is  happy;    knows   nothing;  am  sick;    art  released;  grew 


6         •    •     ••'•./    ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

"  fapMly*;  wa*  •nogTccfcefl ;  were  neglected ;  went  aWay ;  spoke 
sensibly ;  replied  ;  stepped  forth ;  retreated ;  should  obey  their 
parents ;  was  a  great  man. 

Say  something  of  each  of  the  following  objects,  hij  telling  ichat  they  are:  — 

Street,  grass,  hay,  ice,  stars,  mountains,  room,  table. 

Ex.— The  street  is  dusty. 

Say  something  of  each  of  the  following  ol)jects,  by  telling  what  they  do: 

Horse,  farmers,  trees,  servant,  hogs,  tailor,  teacher,  scholar. 

Say  something  of  each  of  tlie  following  objects,  by  telling  what  is  done  to 
them :  — 

Lesson,  bonnet,  feridge,  yard,  window,  John,  newspaper. 

ADJECTIVES. 

We  notice  every  day  that  objects  are  not  all  alike,  even 
when  of  the  same  general  kind.  Some  roses,  for  instance,  are 
red  ;  some  are  white  ;  and  some  are  yellow.  An  apple  may  bo 
large  or  small ;  red,  green,  or  yellow  ;  hard  or  mellow  ;  mealy  or 
juicy.  Sometimes  we  notice  several  things  of  interest  in  tho 
same  object.  A  river,  for  instance,  may  be  deep,  broad,  clear, 
and  s^oifl.  The  vahie  of  objects,  or  the  regard  we  have  for 
them,  depends  not  a  little  on  their  qualities ;  and  hence  it  is 
necessary  for  us  to  have  words  that  will  show  the  quaKties  of 
objects,  or  describe  the  objects.  These  words  are  called  adjec- 
tives. Sometimes  we  use  words  that  do  not  express  the  qual- 
ities of  objects,  but  that  still  serve  to  show  what  objects  are 
meant.  Such  words  are  this,  that,  each,  every,  cither,  first,  seC' 
ond,  one,  two,  three,  etc.  These  words  are  also  called  adjectives. 
The  word  adjective  means  throwing  or  joining  to  ;  an  adjective 
generally  modifies  the  idea  of  an  object,  by  joining  to  it  that 
of  some  quality. 

17.  An  Adjectivo  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit 
tlie  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

"  A  good  pupil  will  be  industrious.^*     Good  and  industrtotcs 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  T 

are  adjectives,  because  they  describe  the  pupil ;  that  is,  they 
describe  the  object  meant  by  the  word  pupil.  "  This  tree  bore 
Jive  bushels  of  apples."  This  is  an  adjective,  because  it  makes 
the  indefinite  word  tree  mean  a  particular  one ;  and  Jive  is  an 
adjective,  because  it  makes  the  indefinite  word  bushels  mean  a 
particular  number. 

Tell  which  are  the  adjectives,  and  why :  — 

Warm  weather ;  dark  clouds ;  shady  lawns ;  tall  trees ;  a 
white  cloud  ;  yonder  house ;  a  hollow  tree  ;  a  steep  bluff. 

Put  suitable  adjectives  to  each  of  the  following  nouns;  and  then  tdt  what  each 
of  the  objects  is,  by  using  the  same  adjective:  — 

Man,  boy,  workman,  star,  rose,  river,  book,  day,  crow,  swan, 
pink,  winter,  snow,  wood,  stones,  lead. 

ADVERBS. 

Not  only  are  objects  different,  but  their  actions  are  also  dif- 
ferent, even  when  of  the  same  general  kind.  People  do  not 
all  walk  alike,  nor  talk  alike,  nor  write  alike.  Hence  we  often 
use  such  words  as  ivell,  badly,  fast,  slowly,  gracefully,  awJcwardly, 
sweetly,  harshly,  hastily,  etc.,  to  describe  the  actions  of  persons, 
or  to  distinguish  their  actions  from  one  another.  These  words 
are  called  adverbs,  because  they  are  generally  added  to  verbs. 
Sometimes  we  distinguish  actions  by  telling  simply  where  or 
when  they  are  done ;  as,  "  It  rained  everywhere" ;  " It  rained 
seldom" 

We  not  only  use  words  to  describe  objects  and  their  actions, 
but  we  often  use  words  to  show  in  what  degrees  objects  or 
actions  have  their  qualities  ;  as,  very  good  ;  tolerably  fast ;  more 
rapidly ;  most  rapidly.  And  these  words,  which  express  de- 
gree, and  are  joined  to  adjectives  and  adverbs,  are  also  called 
adverbs, 

18.  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 


8  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"John  studies  diUgently^^ ;  here  diligenthj  is  an  adverb,  "be- 
cause it  shows  the  manner  of  studying,  or  it  shows  the  mode 
of  doing  that  act  which  is  meant  by  the  word  studies.  "  The 
apple  is  very  good  "  ;  here  very  is  an  adverb,  because  it  shows 
in  what  degree  the  apple  is  good.  "  The  cars  ran  uncommonly 
fast";  here  uncommonly  is  an  adverb,  because  it  shows  in  what 
degree  the  cars  ran  fast. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

By  looking  around  us,  we  can  easily  see  that  the  great  mass 
of  objects  composing  this  world,  is  held  together  in  a  thousand 
different  ways.  "  Houses  are  on  the  ground ;  cellars  are  under 
houses ;  and  trees  grow  around  houses."  "  Boats  run  up  and 
down  rivers,  and  rivers  flow  between  hills."  "  The  morning 
star  rises  before  the  sun,  and  night  comes  after  sunset." 

To  describe  objects  and  all  their  actions  and  states,  we  have 
not  a  sufficient  number  of  words  made  especially  for  this  pur- 
pose, or  we  should  have  to  use  these  words  disagreeably  often. 
Hence  we  often  describe  objects,  actions,  or  their  qualities,  by 
showing  simply  how  they  are  related  to  other  objects ;  or  we 
make  our  thoughts  pictures  of  parts  of  the  world,  by  showing 
in  these  pictures  how  the  corresponding  things  are  linked  to- 
gether. Such  linking  words,  that  express  relation,  are  the 
words  on,  under,  around,  up,  down,  before,  and  after,  used 
above ;  and  such  words  are  called  prepositions,  because  they 
are  generally  placed  before  the  nouns  and  pronouns  with 
which  they  make  descriptive  phrases.  Preposition  comes  from 
pre,  before,  and  positio,  placing;  the  word  therefore  means 
placing  before. 

19.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  a  following  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word. 

"  The  roses  by  my  window  are  in  full  bloom."  By  is  a  prep- 
osition, because  it  shows  the  relation  between  roses  and  win- 
dfjw,  or  the  phrase  by  my  window  shows  what  roses  are  meant ; 


PARTS  OP  SPEECH.  9 

and  in  is  a  preposition,  because  it  shows  the  relation  between 
are  and  bloom,  or  the  phrase  in  bloom  shows  in  what  condition 
the  roses  are  or  exist. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

"We  frequently  use  certain  words  simply  to  connect  words, 
phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of 
the  parts  thus  connected.  When  you  hear  such  words  as  and^ 
but,  because,  you  at  once  know  that  something  more  is  to  come, 
and  that  it  bears  a  certain  relation  to  what  has  been  said.  If 
I  say,  "  John  writes  and  ciphers  "  ;  "  John  spilt  his  ink  on  the 
desk  a7id  on  the  floor  " ;  "  John  writes  every  day,  and  I  gener- 
ally look  at  his  writing " ;  you  see  that  the  word  and  adds 
something  more  to  what  has  been  said,  or  joins  two  words,  two 
phrases,  or  two  propositions  together;  and  since  conjunction 
means  joining  together,  the  word  and,  and  similar  words, 
have  been  called  conjunctions. 

20.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences. 

"  He  rides,  if  he  is  sick."  "  He  rides,  though  he  is  sick." 
"He  rides,  because  he  is  sick."  Here  if,  though,  and  because 
are  conjunctions,  because  each  connects  two  clauses. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

When  we  see,  hear,  or  in  any  other  way  notice  things,  our 
feelings  are  often  suddenly  excited,  and  we  utter,  almost  uncon- 
sciously, certain  little  words  that  show  these  emotions.  Words 
of  this  kind  are  such  as  0,  oh,  ah,  pish,  tut,  aha,  whew,  etc., 
which  you  have  doubtless  often  heard.  They  generally  express 
surprise,  wonder,  joy,  grief,  anger,  or  contempt.  Interjection 
means  throwing  between  ;  and  since  these  words  are  loosely 
thrown  between  other  words  in  speaking,  they  have  been  called 
interjections. 

1* 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

21 1  An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  an 
emotion,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with  any- 
other  word. 

"  Day  broke ;  but  then,  oh !  what  a  spectacle  was  that  battle- 
field !  "  Oh  is  an  interjection,  because  it  expresses  the  sudden 
emotion  of  the  speaker,  and  is  not  related  to  any  of  the  other 
words  of  the  sentence. 

Suggestion  to  the  Teacher.  —  Take  a  walk  with  your  class 
during  some  leisure  interval,  and  teach  them  the  parts  of  speech  from 
the  surrounding  scenery. 


Properties  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

GENDER. 

Wlien  I  say  John,  I  mean  a  male ;  when  I  say  Mary,  I  mean 
a  female;  when  I  say  child,  I  can  mean  either  a  male  or  a 
female ;  and  when  I  say  knife,  I  mean  neither  a  male  nor  a 
female.  Hence  some  nouns  are  the  names  of  males ;  some  are 
the  names  of  females ;  some  are  the  names  of  either  males  or 
females ;  and  some  are  the  names  of  neither  males  nor  females. 
From  this  distinction  in  the  use  of  words,  we  get  that  property 
of  nouns  and  pronouns  which  is  called  gender. 

22.  Gender  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
wliich  distinguishes  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

23.  There  are  four  genders ;  the  masculine^  the  femir 
nine,  the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

24.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  masculine  gender, 
when  it  denotes  a  male.     3fan. 

25.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  feminine  gender, 
when  it  denotes  a  female.      Woman. 

26.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  common  gender, 
when  it  denotes  either  a  male  or  a  female.     Person. 


PROPERTIES  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  11 

27.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  neuter  gender,  when 
it  denotes  neither  a  male  nor  a  female.     House. 

Tlie  nouns  man,  boy,  and  king  are  of  the  masculine  gender, 
because  they  denote  males ;  the  nouns  woman,  girl,  and  queen 
are  of  the  feminine  gender,  because  they  denote  females ;  the 
nouns  parent,  cousin,  and  neighbor  are  of  the  common  gender, 
because  they  can  be  appUed  to  either  males  or  females ;  and 
the  nouns  house,  tree,  and  chair  are  of  the  neuter  gender, 
because  they  are  the  names  of  neither  males  nor  females. 

PERSON. 

In  speaking,  we  can  refer  either  to  ourselves,  to  the  person 
spoken  to,  or  to  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of;  and  there  are 
no  other  ways  of  speaking.  From  this  distinction  in  the  use 
of  words,  we  get  that  property  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs, 
which  is  called  joersow. 

28.  Person  is  that  property  of  words  which  shows 
whether  the  speaker  is  meant,  the  person  spoken  to,  or 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

29.  There  are  three  persons ;  the  first,  the  second, 
and  the  third. 

30.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  first  person,  when 
it  denotes  the  speaker.     /  saw  yotu 

31 1  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  second  person,  when 
it  denotes  the  person  spoken  to.     You  saw  me. 

32.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  third  person,  when 
it  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.     He  saw  it, 

^^  I  Paul  have  written  it";  here  /and  Paul  are  of  the  first 
person,  because  they  denote  the  person  speaking.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "  Thomas,  your  \  horse  has  run  away,"  Thomas  and  your 
are  of  the  second  person,  because  they  denote  the  person 
spoken  to ;  while  the  word  horse  is  of  the  third  person,  because 
it  denotes  the  object  spoken  of. 


12  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


NUMBER. 

There  are  not  only  many  kinds  of  objects  in  the  world,  but 
genorally  many  objects  of  each  kind.  In  speaking,  v/e  often 
"wirih  to  show  that  we  mean  one  object  of  a  kind,  or  more  than 
one ;  and  we  use  words  accordingly.  From  this  distinction  ia 
the  use  of  words,  we  get  that  property  of  words  which  is 
called  number.  j 

33.  Number  is  that  property  of  words  which  shows 
whether  one  object  is  meant,  or  more  than  one. 

34.  There  are  two  numbers;  the  singular  and  the 
plural, 

35.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  singular  number^ 
when  it  denotes  but  one  object.     Booh. 

36.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  plural  number,  when 
it  denotes  more  objects  than  one.     Books. 

The  nouns  Albert,  tree,  and  girl  are  of  the  singular  number, 
because  each  denotes  but  one  object ;  the  nouns  boi/s,  trees,  and 
girls  are  of  the  plural  number,  because  each  denotes  more 
objects  than  one. 

CASE. 

When  we  speak  of  an  object,  we  either  say  that  it  is  some- 
thing, that  it  does  something,  or  that  something  is  done  to  it ; 
as,  "  The  dove  is  white  "  ;  "  The  dove  coos  "  ;  "  The  dove  was 
cavghtJ*  Tliis  relation  of  an  object  to  what  is  said  of  it,  is 
called  case.  When  something  is  done,  the  act  often  affects 
some  object ;  as,  "  The  dove  eats  corn."  This  relation  of  the 
act  to  what  is  acted  upon,  is  also  called  case.  Almost  every 
object  in  the  world  belongs  to  some  other  object,  or  is  a  part 
of  some  other  ;  as,  "  Marijs  dove  "  ;  "  The  dove's  feathers." 

All  these  relations  of  objects  produce,  in  the  expression  of 
our  thoughts,  those  relations  between  words  which  are  called 
cases* 


PROPERTIES  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  13 

37.  Case  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
which  sliows  how  they  are  used  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

38.  There  are  three  cases ;  the  nom'inative^  the  pos- 
sessive^ and  the  objective* 

89.   A   noun   or  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
when  it  is  the  subject  of  a  predicate-verb.     /run. 
!     40.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  possessive  case,  when 
it  denotes  possession.     Mt/  hat. 

41.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  objective  case,  when 
it  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition.  He 
sent  me  to  him. 

"  Jo/in  shot  some  squirrels  in  my  father's  \  fields  Here  the 
word  John  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  de- 
notes the  doer  of  something,  or  the  person  of  whom  something 
is  said ;  the  Avords  squirrels  and  Jield  are  said  to  be  in  the 
objective  case,  because  squirrels  shows  what  he  shot,  and  Jield 
shows  in  what ;  and  tlie  word  fathers  is  in  the  possessive  case, 
because  it  denotes  the  owner  of  something. 

The  teacher  should  explain  the  subject  of  Case  more  fullj. 

VOICE. 

WTien  an  act  is  done  by  one  person  or  thing  to  another,  we 
can  state  the  fact  in  two  ways,  —  either  by  telHng  what  the 
doer  does,  or  by  telhng  what  is  done  to  the  person  or  thing 
acted  upon  ;  as,  "  Brutus  Jdlled  Caesar  " ;  "  Caesar  was  hilled  by 
Brutus."  From  this  distinction  in  the  use  of  words,  we  get 
that  property  of  verbs  which  is  called  voice. 

42.  Voice  is  that  property  of  verbs  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  does,  or  receives,  the  act. 

43.  There  are  two  voices;  the  active  and  the  pas- 
sive. 

44.  A  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  when  it  represents 
its  subject  as  acting.     I  struck. 


14  ENGLISH   GEAMMAK. 

45.  A  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice,  when  it  represents 
its  subject  as  acted  upon.     I  was  struck. 

If  I  say,  "The  servant  scoured  the  floor,"  scoured  is  said  to 
be  in  the  active  voice,  because  it  represents  the  subject,  servant, 
as  acting  upon  the  floor ;  but  if  I  say,  "  The  floor  was  scoured 
by  the  servant,"  was  scoured  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice, 
because  it  represents  the  subject,  floor,  as  acted  upon. 

MOOD. 

Many  actions  really  take  place ;  but  many  actions  are  only 
in  the  mind,  or  people  are  in  certain  relations  to  them.  If  I 
say,  "  I  write,'"  1  express  something  as  a  matter  of  fact ;  "  I  mai/ 
or  can  write"  1  express  not  what  is  matter  of  fact,  yet  may 
become  such,  or  I  simply  declare  my  relation  to  the  act ;  "  If  I 
were  writing,''  I  express  a  mere  supposition ;  "  Write,''  I  request 
it  to  be  done ;  "  To  write,"  "  Writing,"  I  simply  speak  of  the 
act.  These  different  modes  of  expressing  the  verb,  gram- 
marians call  moods ;  or,  from  this  distinction  in  the  use  of 
verbs,  we  get  that  property  of  verbs  wliich  is  called  mood, 

46t  IVEood  is  the  manner  in  which  the  act  or  state  is  ex- 
pressed with  reference  to  its  subject. 

47.  There  are  four  moods;  the  indicative,  the  sub- 
junctive, the  potential,  and  the  imperative, 

48.  A  verb  in  the  indicative  mood  expresses  an  actual 
occurrence  or  fact.     I  go, 

49.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  expresses  a  future 
contingency,  or  a  mere  wish,  supposition,  or  conclusion. 
If  I  go.     If  I  were, 

50.  A  verb  in  the  potential  mood  expresses  power, 
possibility,  liberty,  inclination,  duty,  or  necessity.  I 
may,  can,  or  must  go, 

51.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  expresses  com- 
mand, entreaty,  exhortation,  or  permission.     Qo  (thou). 


PROPERTIES  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  15 

52.  There  are  two  other  forms  of  the  verb,  the  {nfini- 
iive  and  the  participle ;  but  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  call 
them  moods.     See  pp.  131,  217. 

"  I  study "  ;  here  study  is  in  the  indicative  mood,  because  it 
expresses  something  as  really  taking  place.  "  If  I  study" 
"  If  I  were  studying  "  ;  here  study  and  were  studying  are  in  the 
suhjunctive  mood,  because  the  former  expresses  only  what  may 
take  place  hereafter,  and  the  latter  a  mere  supposition.  "  I 
can  study  "  ;  here  can  study  is  in  the  potential  mood,  because  it 
expresses  only  my  ability  in  regard  to  studying.  "  Study "  / 
here  study  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  because  it  is  given  as  a 
command  to  the  person  spoken  to.  "  To  study,"  "  Studying  "  ; 
here  the  actions  are  spoken  of  abstractly,  that  is,  without  refer- 
ring them  to  any  particular  person  or  thing. 

TENSE. 

We  can  not  separate  our  actions  from  time.  Besides,  the 
time  of  an  act,  or  whether  the  act  is  completed  or  not,  is  often 
a  matter  of  great  importance  to  us.  Time  may  naturally  be 
divided  into  three  great  divisions, — present,  past,  2ind  future  ; 
and  in  each  of  these  periods  we  may  speak  of  an  act  as  simply 
taking  place,  or  as  completed.  Thus  :  **  I  write,"  "  I  have 
written  "  ;  "  I  wrote,"  "  I  had  written  "  ;  "  I  shall  write,"  "  I 
shall  have  written."  These  different  ways  of  using  verbs  to 
distinguish  time,  are  called  tenses. 

53.  Tense  is  that  property  of  verbs  which  shows  the 
distinctions  of  time. 

54.  There  are  six  tenses:  the  present,  the  present-, 
perfect;  the  past,  the  j)ast'perfeot;  the  future,  and  the 
future-perfect. 

55.  A  verb  in  the  present  tense  expresses  a  present 
act  or  state.     I  see. 

56.  A   verb   in   the  present-perfect    tense  represents 


16  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

sometMng  as  completed  in  present  time ;  or  as  past, 
but  connected  with  present  time.     I  have  seen. 

57.  A  verb  in  the  past  tense  expresses  simply  a  past 
act  or  state.     I  saw, 

58t  A  verb  in  the  past-perfect  tense  represents  some- 
thing as  completed  in  past  time.     I  had  seen. 

59.  A  verb  in  the  future  tense  expresses  simply  a 
future  act  or  state.     I  shall  see, 

60.  A  verb  in  the  future-perfect  tense  represents 
something  as  completed  in  future  time.  I  shall  have 
seen. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  six  tenses :  "  The  tree 
blossoms"  "  The  tree  has  blossomed " /  "  The  tree  blossomed" 
*'  The  tree  had  blossomed " ;  «  The  tree  will  blossom"  " The 
tree  will  have  blossomed.'* 

COMPARISON. 

Objects  not  only  have  qualities,  but  they  often  differ  in  their 
qualities,  especially  in  degree ;  and  not  a  little  of  our  regard 
for  objects  depends  on  whether  they  have  more  or  less  of  the 
qualities  which  we  like  or  dislike.  I  may  prefer,  for  instance, 
one  apple  to  another  because  it  is  larger  or  better  than  the  other. 
Actions  also  differ,  and  not  unfrequently  in  degree.  "  John 
may  study  diligently,  but  Mary  may  study  more  diligently" 

When  we  thus  compare  qualities,  actions,  and  their  circum- 
stances, we  usually  make  but  three  chief  distinctions.  We 
may  speak  of  the  quality  itself,  of  a  higher  or  a  lower  degree 
of  it,  or  of  the  highest  or  the  lowest  degree ;  as,  wise,  wiser, 
wisest ;  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise.  From  these  distinctions  in 
the  use  of  qualifying  words,  we  get  that  property  of  adjectives 
and  adverbs  which  is  called  comparison. 

CI.  Comparison  is  that  property  of  adjectives  and 
adverbs  which  expresses  quality  in  different  degrees. 


GRAMMATICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.  17 

62.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  ;  the  pod- 
tive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

63.  An  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  in  the  positive  de- 
gree, when  it  expresses  simply  the  quality.      Wise. 

64.  An  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  in  the  comparative 
degree,  when  it  expresses  the  quahty  in  a  higher  or  a 
lower  deo-ree.      Wiser,  less  wise. 

65.  An  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  in  the  superlative 
degree,  when  it  expresses  the  quality  in  the  highest  or 
the  lowest  degree.      Wisest,  least  wise, 

"Jane  is  tall";  *^ Alice  is  taller*' ;  "Louisa  is  the  tallest." 
"  Jane  writes  carefully  "  ;  "  Alice  writes  less  carefully  "  ;  "  Lou- 
isa writes  hast  carefully.'* 

Fundamental  Ideas,  and  Grammatical 
Development  of  Sentences. 

OBJECTS. 

1.  Horse,  dog,  man,  boys,  lady,  monkey,  parasol. 

The  horse  runs.  The  dog  barks.  The  man  works.  Boys 
study  and  play.  The  lady  lost  her  |  parasol.  The  monhey  had 
taken  the  lady's  \  parasol.  I  bought  a  barrel  of  flour.  Life 
has  its  I  pleasures  and  its  \  troubles. 

2.  For  me  to  go.     To  die  for  one's  country. 

For  me  to  go  is  impossible.  (What  is  impossible?)  He 
wishes  to  sell  the  farm.     It  is  glorious  to  die  for  one's  country. 

3.  That  he  will  ever  return.  That  you  are  not  very  at- 
tentive. 

That  he  will  ever  return,  is  doubtful.  (What  is  doubtful  ?) 
He  says  that  you  are  not  very  attentive  to  your  business.  Is  it 
not  a  pity,  that  she  knows  so  little  ? 

From  the  examples  under  this  head,  we  can  infer  that  a 
fundamental  idea  may  show  itself  in  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

clause.  And  from  some  of  the  examples  under  the  following 
heads,  it  will  be  evident  that  it  sometimes  shows  itself  in  the 
changes  which  it  causes  in  the  forms  of  words. 

C6i  A  Phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put 
together,  without  making  a  proposition. 

67.  A  Clause  is  a  proposition  that  makes  but  a 
part  of  a  sentence.  , 

C8.  A  Sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  a  propo- 
sition, or  a  union  of  propositions,  followed  by  a  full  pause. 

ACTIONS. 

Roll,  read,  climb,  fly,  swim,  dance,  sing. 

The  ball  rolls.  The  boy  reads.  Squirrels  climh  trees. 
Pigeons  ^^  rapidly.  Ducks  swim.  The  girls  sing  and  dance. 
The  girls  sing,  walk,  and  dance.  The  lightnings  dart  from 
cloud  to  cloud.     The  dew  bends  and  refreshes  the  flowers. 

Changes  in  Form.  —  The  bell  tolls.  The  bell  is  tolling.  The 
bell  has  tolled.  The  bell  tolled.  The  bell  had  tolled.  The 
bell  will  toll.  The  bell  will  have  toUed.  The  bell  may  toll. 
The  bell  may  have  tolled.  The  bell  should  have  tolled.  Toll, 
sweet  bell! 

I  strike.  I  am  striking.  I  am  struck.  I  was  struck.  I  was 
striking.  I  struck.  I  have  been  striking.  I  have  been  struck. 
I  shall  strike.  I  shall  be  struck.  I  shall  have  been  striking.  I 
could  strike.  I  coidd  have  been  struck.  See  Manner  and 
Time,  pp.  23-25. 

QUALITIES,    OR   ATTRIBUTES. 

1.  Words.  —  A  green  meadow.  The  meadow  is  green.  A 
fragrant  pink.  The  pink  is  fragrant.  Warm  weather.  The 
weather  is  warm.  Blue  hills.  The  hills  are  blue.  Long  les- 
sons. The  lessons  were  long.  An  idle  boy.  The  boy  is  idle. 
A  bleak  and  frosty  morning.     The  morning  is  bleah  and  frosty. 


GRAMMATICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OP  SENTENCES.  19 

She  has  Uack  eyes,  rosy  cheeks,  and  pearly  teeth.  The  windy 
summit,  wild  and  high,  rises  against  the  distant  sky.  Rosy 
child,  with  forehead /aiV,  coral  lip,  and  shining  hair. 

Changes  in  Form.  —  A  cold  day  ;  a  colder  day  ;  the  coldest  day. 
The  day  was  cold.  The  day  was  coldei-.  The  day  was  the 
coldest.  Large  fish  live  in  deep  water.  Larger  fish  live  in 
deeper  water.  The  largest  fish  live  in  the  deepest  water.  This 
tree  has  many  apples.  That  tree  has  more  apples.  Yonder 
tree  has  most  apples.     See  Degree,  p.  20. 

2.  Phrases,  —  The  flowers  of  spring  and  the  stars  of  heaven,  ^ 
(What  flowers  ?)  Beauty  is  like  the  flowers  of  spring,  but 
virtue  is  like  the  stars  of  heaven.  The  song  of  the  robin  was 
clear  and  tender.  A  bough  with  red  berries  floated  on  the 
water.  The  time  of  danger  is  the  time  for  courage.  It  is  the 
knell  of  the  departed  year.  She  has  a  bouquet  of  rare  and 
beautiful  flowers.  The  shady  lawn  between  the  house  and  the 
river  is  the  most  delightful  part  of  the  farm. 

3.  Clauses.  —  The  lady  who  sings  so  well,  is  now  in  the 
house.  (What  lady  ?)  He  who  is  fond  of  solitude,  is  gen- 
erally fond  of  studying.  Those  people  who  flatter  you,  are  not 
your  friends.  The  rain  which  we  have  had  this  week,  has  been 
very  refreshing.  We  gathered  every  year  large  quantities  of 
nuts,  which  grew  in  great  abundance  in  the  forest  \  thai  sur^ 
rounded  our  little  farm* 

SEX. 

^  is  a  boy.  She  is  a  girl.  It  is  b,  tree.  I  met  him.  You 
met  her.  We  met  them.  Be  is  mj  father.  She  is  my  mother. 
My  unck  came  on  his  pony.  My  aunt  came  in  her  carriage. 
His  brother  is  a  duke.  His  sister  is  a  duchess.  He  married  a 
Jewess.  She  married  a  Jew.  He  was  administrator.  She  was 
administratrix.  He  is  an  actor.  She  is  an  actress.  If  Joseph 
was  a  hero,  Josephine  was  a  heroine.  Beaus  wait  upon  belles. 
The  prince  and  the  princess  are  now  king  and  queen.    Miss 


20  ENGLISH    GBAMMAB. 

Julia  Brooks  is  the  niece,  not  the  nephew,  of  ^Ir.  Julius 
Brooks.  Ganders  are  wliite,  and  geese  are  gray.  Ganders 
and  geese  are  often  called  geese ;  drakes  and  ducks,  ducks ; 
horses  and  mares,  horses ;  and  heirs  and  heiresses,  heirs.  Two 
sons  were  all  the  7nale  descendants^  and  three  daughters  all  the 
female  descendants,  of  the  family.  The  landlady  was  very 
polite  to  the  gentlemen  and  the  ladies ;  but  I  assure  you  the 
landlord  made  them  all  pay  for  their  titles  the  next  morning. 

NUMBER. 

One  is.  Two  or  more  are.  One  was.  Two  or  more  were. 
One  has  been.  Two  or  more  have  been.  One  reads.  Two 
or  more  read.  The  man  works.  The  men  work.  My  tooth 
is  sound.  My  teeth  are  sound.  That  goose  is  wild.  Those 
geese  are  wild.  The  boy  has  lost  his  knife.  The  boys  have 
>lost  their  knives.  The  girl  has  recited  her  lesson.  The  girls 
have  recited  their  lessons.  Only  one  half  was  accepted, 
though  both  halves  were  offered.  The  fox  is  a  cunning  ani- 
mal. Foxes  are  cunning  animals.  The  lady  is  modest. 
Ladies  are  modest.  My  foot  is  sore.  My  feet  are  sore.  Our 
feet  are  sore.  The  mouse  ran  into  its  hole.  The  mice  ran 
into  their  holes.  The  child  sleeps.  The  children  sleep.  He 
bought  an  ox.  They  bought  a  yoke  of  oxen.  I  am  busy. 
We  are  busy.  Thou  art.  Ye  are.  I  know  myself.  Wo 
know  ourselves.  He  knows  himself.  They  know  themselves. 
He,  she,  or  it,  is  good.  They  are  good.  The  deer  is  a  pretty 
creature.  Deer  are  pretty  creatures.  The  sheep  is  timid. 
Sheep  are  timid.  The  swine  is  greedy.  Swine  are  greedy. 
I  bought  one  dozen.  He  bought  five  dozen.  This  species 
of  flowers  is  beautiful.  These  species  of  flowers  are  beau- 
tiful. The  committee  was  large.  The  committee  were  not 
unanimous.  The  whole  flock  of  partridges  was  caught.  A 
multitude  of  people  were  assembled.  The  news  is  good.  By 
this  means  he  lost  all.     By  these  means  he  lost  all.     His 


GRAMMATICAL  DEVELOPMENT   OF  SENTENCES.  21 

lungs  were  diseased.  Riches  are  seldom  well  spent.  The 
embers  were  hot.  The  dregs  were  at  the  bottom.  The  tongs 
have  been  more  useful  than  the  snuffers.  An  ash  is  a  tree ; 
but  ashes  are  the  remains  of  burned  wood  or  coal.  Geniuses 
are  men  of  genius,  but  genii  are  spirits.  Dice  are,  used  for 
gaming,  and  dies  are  used  for  stamping.  A  memorandum  de- 
notes one  thing,  but  memoranda  denote  more.  A  radius  is  a 
single  line,  but  radii  are  more.  SiUc  is  a  kind  of  stuff,  but 
silks  are  different  kinds  of  silk.  Tea  is  a  kind  of  drink,  but 
teas  are  different  kinds  of  tea.  By  spices  we  usually  mean  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  spice.  The  Misses  Bates  are  sisters  to  Dr.  Bates ; 
and  the  Messrs.  Barnes  are  brothers  to  Miss  Barnes.  Ten 
spoonfuls  made  a  cupful ;  and  twenty  cupfuls  made  two  pitchers 
nearly  full.  My  brothers-in-law  live  at  my  father-in-law's  res- 
idence. The  court-martial  appealed  to  all  the  preceding 
courts-martial's  decisions. 

Every  boy  has  brought  his  books.  All  the  boys  have 
brought  their  books.  All  sugar  is  sweet.  All  ripe  oranges 
are  yellow.  Either  place  is  suitable.  Both  places  are  suit- 
able. Neither  place  is  suitable.  Some  children  are  indus- 
trious. Most  children  are  lazy.  Some  one  is  talking.  Some 
others  are  shutting  their  desks.  Many  were  invited,  but  only 
a  few  came.  Two  make  a  pair ;  twelve  make  a  dozen ;  and 
twenty  make  a  score.  Five  pair  were  sold  for  fil'ty  cents. 
Man's  years  are  three  score  and  ten. 

PERSON. 

This  subject  belongs  more  properly  to  the  next  head,  Relation ;  but  it 
is  probably  best  to  consider  it  in  connection  with  Number. 

I  am.  Thou  art.  He  is.  We  are.  You  are.  They  are. 
I  was.  Thou  wast.  He  was.  We  were.  You  were.  They 
were.  I  have  been.  You  have  been.  He  has  been.  They 
have  been.  I  write.  He  writes.  /  know  my  lessons.  Be 
knows  his  lesson.     Tou  know  yowr  lesson.     We  know  ottr  les- 


22  ENGLISH   GBAMMAR. 

sons.  Tliey  know  tlieir  lessons.  /  take  care  of  myself.  Ton 
take  care  of  yourself.  We  take  care  of  ourselces.  You  take 
care  of  yourselves.  He  takes  care  of  himself.  They  take 
care  of  themselves.  This  is  mine  ;  that  is  yours  ;  and  the  other 
is  his  or  hers.  The  responsibility  must  ikll  upon  him,  upon 
you,  or  upon  me.  We  have  deceived  ourselves ;  you  have  de- 
ceived yourselves ;  and  they  have  deceived  themselves. 

RELATION. 

Things  have  many  relations  to  one  another,  and  there  are 
as  many  corresponding  relations  in  the  use  of  words  ;  but  we 
shall  here  notice  only  the  chief  of  those  relations  which  afford 
us  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Nominative  Case.  — The  tree  fell.  (What  fell?)  The  flower 
is  miiblding.  The  partridges  flew  away.  The  ship  moves. 
The  hell  rings.  The  storm  roars.  She  laughed.  (Who 
laughed  ?)  He  is  reading.  /  shall  return  soon.  The  boys 
skate.     The  trees  wave.     Thejire  crackles  and  flames. 

The  ocean  is  blue.  (What  is  blue  ?)  This  map  is  beautiful. 
The  well  was  deep.  Her  dress  was  white  and  neat.  The  lark 
is  a  singing-bird.  A  thief  is  also  a  liar.  Our  corn  is  gathered. 
The  bread  is  baked.     Brass  is  made  of  zinc  and  copper. 

Objective  Case.  —  The  fisherman  catches  fsh.  (Catches 
what?)  The  boy  broke  the  looking-glass.  My  mother  spins^aar. 
The  carpenter  mended  the  door.  The  caterpillars  devoured 
the  buds.  The  weaver  weaves  yarn  into  cloth.  The  barber 
shaved  me.  I  invited  him.  They  hid  themselves.  The  sun  is 
warming  the  garden.  Snow  has  covered  the  hills.  She  sang 
us  a  song. 

I  was  going  down  the  street.  (Down  what  ?)  The  Missis- 
sippi river  rises  in  Minnesota.  Tlie  book  lay  on  the  tub!e. 
The  child  fell  into  the  well.  The  bridge  extends  over  the 
river.  There  is  a  plank-road  from  the  church  to  the  college. 
Several  railroads  run  through  Pennsylvania.  The  garden  lies 
behind  the  house.    The  swallows  flutter  about  the  eaves. 


GRASIMATICAL  DEVELOPMENT   OF  SENTENCES.  23 

Possessive  Case.  —  Here  h  the  hoij's  book.  Here  arc  the  hoi/s* 
bOvoks.  This  is  the  mail's  hat.  These  are  the  men's  hats.  I 
have  cleaned  mi/  desk.  We  have  cleaned  our  desks.  You 
have  broken  your  slate.  He  has  bruised  his  thumb.  She  has 
torn  her  book.  They  had  lost  their  vray.  This  is  mine  ;  that 
is  7/oi<rs ;  and  the  other  is  hers.  Tours  are  better  than  ours. 
My  brothers  estate  belongs  to  one  person  only.  My  brothers* 
estate  belongs  to  two  or  more  persons.  My  friends  request 
comes  from  one  person  only.  My  friends'  request  comes  from 
two  or  more  persons.  It  is  our  duty,  not  theirs,  to  supply  the 
people's  wants.  For  goodness'  sake,  help  me  out  of  my 
troubles.    He  resides  near  St.  James's  Place. 

MOOD  OR  MANNER. 

"We  shall  notice  manner  here,  only  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  different 
modes  of  expressing  the  vci-b  in  regard  to  its  subject. 

Indicative  Mood. — John  is  at  home.  The  glass  was 
broken.  The  servant  has  made  a  fire.  I  had  bought  a  farm. 
You  shall  see  him  to-morrow.  The  miller  will  have  ground 
the  corn  before  we  return. 

Subjunctive  Mood.  —  If  John  were  at  home.  If  the 
glass  be  broken,  you  may  throw  it  away.  If  the  servant  had 
made  a  fire,  we  should  have  been  comfortable.  If  I  bought 
the  farm,  I  should  have  to  sell  it  again.  If  you  see  him  to- 
morrow, tell  him  to  visit  me.  Had  the  miller  ground  the  corn, 
we  should  have  returned  sooner. 

Potential  Mood.  —  John  may  be  at  home.  The  glass 
may  have  been  broken.  The  servant  could  have  made  a  fire. 
I  would  buy  the  farm,  if  he  would  sell  it.  You  must  see  him 
to-morrow.     The  miller  should  have  ground  the  corn. 

Imperative  Mood.  —  John,  be  at  home.  Peter,  make  a 
firo.  Miller,  grind  the  corn.  Buy  the  Axrm.  See  him  to- 
morrow, if  you  can.  Behave  yourself  well.  Be  always  kind 
and  obliging.     Do  not  grieve  over  unavoidable  calamitiest 


24  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Infinitives  and  Pahtictples.  —  A  servant  came  to  make 
a  fire.  I  ought  to  have  bought  the  farm.  It  seems  to  have 
rained  last  night.  Two  hundred  cannons^  jflashinff  and  thunder' 
hig  continually,  seemed  to  shake  the  very  earth  to  its  centre. 
The  glass  having  been  broken,  we  threw  it  away. 

Akin  to  the  forms  of  the  verb  known  as  moods,  are  the  forms 
of  the  verb  called  voices. 

John  hit  James.  James  was  hit  by  John.  He  told  the 
story.  The  story  was  told  by  him.  The  puppy  tore  the  book. 
The  book  was  torn  by  the  puppy.  The  water  turns  the  wheel. 
The  wheel  is  turned  by  the  water.  The  winds  fan  the  flowers 
and  ruffle  the  waters.  The  flowers  are  fanned  and  the  waters 
are  ruffled  by  the  winds. 

Akin  to  the  moods  are  also  (he  interrogative  and  the 
NEGATIVE  FORM  of  the  verb. 

He  lias  read  the  book.  He  has  not  read  the  book.  Has  he 
read  the  book  ?  Has  he  not  read  the  book  ?  You  have  been 
at  home.  You  have  not  been  at  home.  Have  you  been  at 
home?  Have  you  not  been  at  home?  Life  is  a  burden. 
Life  is  not  a  burden.  Is  life  a  burden?  Is  not  life  a 
burden  ? 

Akin  to  the  moods  are  also  the  forms  of  the  tenses. 

He  teaches.  He  teach  eth.  He  is  teaching.  He  does  teach. 
He  doth  teach.  You  know  him.  Thou  knowest  him.  You 
are  a  sinful  people.  Ye  are  a  sinful  people.  I  write.  I  am 
writing.  I  do  write.  I  wrote.  I  was  writing.  I  did  write. 
Visit  me.  Do  visit  me.  Are  you  the  traitor  ?  Art  thou  th« 
traitor  ? 

TIME. 

A  chief  idea  sometimes  displays  itself  in  the  changes  which 
it  causes  in  a  certain  class  of  words.  When  this  occurs,  the 
idea  becomes  a  grammatical  property.  Hence  time  affords  us 
the  tenses. 


GRA3IMATICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.  26 

Changes  in  Form.  —  Present  Tense.  —  The  rose  blooms. 
The  boy  studies.  The  work  is  done.  The  leaves  are  falling. 
The  cars  do  not  move.     The  journey  is  expensive. 

Present-perfect  Tense.  —  The  rose  has  bloomed.  The 
boy  has  studied.  The  work  has  been  done.  The  leaves  have 
been  falling.     The  journey  has  been  expensive. 

Past  Tense.  —  The  rose  bloomed.  The  boy  studied. 
Tlie  work  was  done.  The  leaves  were  falling.  The  cars  did 
not  move.     The  journey  was  expensive. 

Past-perfect  Tense.  —  The  rose  had  bloomed.  The  boy 
had  studied.  The  work  had  been  done.  The  leaves  had 
been  falling.     The  journey  had  been  expensive. 

Future  Tense.  —  The  rose  will  bloom.  The  boy  will 
study.  The  work  will  be  done.  The  leaves  will  be  falling. 
The  journey  will  be  expensive. 

Future-perfect  Tense.  —  The  rose  will  have  bloomed. 
The  boy  will  have  studied.  The  work  will  have  been  done. 
The  train  will  have  left.  The  journey  will  have  been  ex- 
pensive. 

Time  may  show  itself  more  definitely  in  wordsy  phrases,  or 
clauses,  that  are  used  to  express  it. 

Words.  —  The  paper  comes  weeJchj.  Go  instantly.  It  rains 
daily.  Your  class  is  now  reciting.  He  will  return  late,  I 
shall  see  you  to-morrow.  He  was  here  yesterday.  Jonquils 
bloom  early.  The  oak  lives  long.  We  shall  soon  reach  the 
shore.     He  visits  us  frequently.     She  is  always  cheerful. 

Phrases.  —  He  remained  till  morning.  A  great  storm  arose 
ajler  sunset.  They  were  treated  well  that  night,  and  the  next 
day  they  departed.  At  the  break  of  day,  our  horses  were  sad- 
dled. He  rode  a  hundred  miles  in  iwentyfive  hours.  For 
many  a  returning  autumn,  this  Indian  visited  the  graves  of  his 
fathers.  Within  twenty  years  from  the  foundation  of  this  vil- 
lage, deer  had  become  scarce. 

Clauses.  —  He  knocked  at  the  door,  before  any  one  was  awaJce. 
We  shall  have  peace,  after  we  have  subdued  the  enemy.     Great 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

was  the  alarm  in  the  colony,  while  these  children  were  lost,  "We 
traveled  through  dim  paths,  until  the  day  drew  to  its  close.  She 
smiled  when  I  told  her  how  I  had  fallen  into  the  water. 

Frequently,  the  changed  form,  the  word,  the  phrase,  and  the 
clause,  are  all  found  in  the  same  sentence;  as,  "He  came\ 
early  \  in  the  morning,  |  while  we  were  at  breakfast.^* 

PLACE. 

WordSi  —  The  man  is  here.  My  horse  stands  yonder,  I  went 
home.  I  have  seen  him  somewhere,  I  shall  go  abroad.  The 
wall  fell  inwards.  The  birds  flew  away.  The  dog  came  up. 
Beautiful  mansions  gleamed  far  and  near. 

Phrases.  —  Melons  grow  on  vines.  Tea  is  brought  from 
China.  The  child  slept  in  its  mother's  lap,  I  was  at  the 
same  school.  You  reside  in  a  pleasant  part  of  the  city.  Let  us 
take  a  ramble  in  the  woods.  The  cascade  tumbled  from  the 
rocks.  The  army  marclied  round  the  hill.  We  went  through 
swamps,  thickets,  and  endless  mud.  The  Indians  bore  themyar 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  settlement.  She  sat  below  us,  \  at  the 
same  table, 

Clanscs.  —  "We  caught  the  minnows  where  the  water  ripples 
over  the  rocks.  He  remains  wherever  he  finds  good  company. 
Thou  hearest  the  sound  of  the  wind ;  but  thou  canst  not  tell 
whence  it  cometh,  and  whither  it  goeth. 

Frequently,  two  or  more  chief  ideas  are  combined  in  the 
same  sentence.  A  recent  French  novel  begins  thus :  "  In  the 
gloomy  month  of  November,  \  when  the  English  drown  and  hong 
themselves,  a  disconsolate  lover  walked  forth  \  into  the  felds, 
and  seated  himself  under  ajuniper-tree."     (Time  and  place.) 

DEGREE. 

The  river  is  deep.  The  lake  is  deeper.  The"  ocean  is  the 
deepest  body  of  water  in  the  world.  Tliis  one  is  good;  that 
one  is  better;  but  the  other  is  the  best.    Want  is  bad;  but 


LOGICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.      27 

debt  may  be  worse.  A  good  name  is  better  than  riches.  The 
worst  gambler  won  the  money.  Who  has  more  enemies  and 
fewer  iriends,  7nore  trouble  and  less  pleasure,  than  the  miser  ? 
The  pink  is  more  beautiful  than  the  marigold,  and  one  of  the 
most  fragrant  of  flowers.  He  sat  next  to  me,  though  I  was 
nearer  to  the  speaker.  I- said  an  elder  soldier,  not  a  braver.  The 
upper  room  is  already  occupied.  The  hindmost  man  was  left 
in  the  utmost  distress.  Most  men  judge  others  more  severely 
than  themselves.  The  weather  is  somewhat  colder.  The 
weather  is  so  cold  that  I  need  my  overcoat.  There  was  so 
much  noise  that  we  could  hear  but  very  little  of  what  was  said. 

Logical  Development  of  Sentences. 

Persons  are  often  perplexed  in  determining  how  they  shall 
arrange  the  words  by  means  of  which  they  express  their 
thoughts.  We  generally  express  our  thoughts  as  we  naturally 
think  them.  That  of  which  we  think  or  speak,  is  naturally 
first  thought  of;  and  therefore  it  is  generally  first  put  down. 
To  this  we  add,  either  before  or  after,  all  the  descriptive 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  that  belong  to  it ;  as,  *'  The  boy,'* 
"The  little  boy,"  "The  little  boy  from  the  country,"  "The 
little  boy  from  the  country,  who  was  here  yesterday."  Having 
thus  got  the  subject,  we  next  put  down,  in  like  manner,  what 
is  said  of  it ;  as,  "  wept,"  "  wept  bitterly,"  "  wept  bitterly  for 
a  long  time,"  "wept  bitterly  for  a  long  time  because  he 
could  not  find  his  father."  "  The  little  boy  from  the  country, 
who  was  here  yesterday,  wept  bitterly  for  a  long  time  because 
he  could  not  find  his  father."  From  this  sentence  it  is  obvious 
that  we  naturally  first  put  down  the  subject,  then  the  predicate, 
adding  to  each,  or  rather,  including  with  each,  the  various  qual- 
ities or  secondary  ideas  which  enter  into  the  thought.  We  do 
not,  however,  always  arrange  our  words  in  this  way ;  but  we 
sometimes  put  down  first  that  which  is  first  or  most  thought  of, 
or  makes  the  greatest  impression  upon  us,  even  if  it  is  not  the 


28  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

f 

object  itself  of  which  we  are  speaking.  "  The  whole  shelf  of 
china  fell  down  with  such  clattering  and  breaking  as  startled 
U3  all."  In  an  occurrence  of  this  kind,  the  iall  is  naturally  the 
most  striking  part ;  and  therefore  we  would  probably  say, 
"  Down  fell  the  whole  shelf  of  chioa,  with  such  clattering  and 
breaking  as  startled  us  all." 

"We  have  many  different  thoughts.  Our  thoughts  are  made 
thus  different  because  they  are  made  up  of  many  different 
ideas.  Hence  we  get  many  different  sentences;  but  nearly 
all  of  these  sentences  come  more  or  less  within  the  following 
description,  or  their  parts  answer  to  some  of  the  following 
questions :  — 

Which  one  ?    ")  r  Is  what  ?  r  "When  1  Where  I 

How  many?     V  Subject.  J  Does  what?  )  Howl    Why? 

Of  what  kind?  )  Who?  What?  (  Has  what  done  to  it?  (  As  to  what? 

Let  US  now  develop  sentences  accordingly. 


SUBJECT. 

Simplest  Form.    Who?    What? 

Columbus  discovered  America.  GaHle'o  invented  the  tele- 
scope. Capt.  John  Smith  colonized  Virginia.  The  Romans 
destroyed  Jerusalem.  Washington  is  called  the  father  of  our 
country.     The  Mayor  did  not  sign  the  bill. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  metal.      Wealth  is  not  the  greatest 
blessing.     A  pen  may  be  more  dangerous  than  a  sword.     Pop' 
lars  grow  rapidly.     Beauty  is  a  perishing  flower. 
Which  one? 

This  TREE  is  an  oak.  That  tree  is  an  elm.  Yonder  farm 
belongs  to  me.  The  first  man  was  shot.  The  last  squadron 
had  arrived.  The  youngest  child  is  a  daughter.  The  eldest 
SON  is  in  the  army.  Albert's  books  are  new.  My  neighbor's 
HORSES  ran  away.  Tour  cap  fits  me.  The  river  Hudson  is 
in  New  York.  The  poet  Cowper  lived  at  Olney,  in  England. 
The  STEAMSHIP  Arctic  was  wrecked  at  sea.    David,  the  son 


LOGICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.  29 

of  Jesse^  became  king  of  Israel.  The  tree  dead  at  the  top 
was  first  cut  down.  The  apple  highest  on  the  tree  is  not 
always  the  best.  The  elm  hefoi-e  the  house  must  be  a  thousand 
years  old.  The  paling  around  the  garden  cost  a  hundred  dol- 
lars. The  FIELD  below  the  hill  is  sometimes  overflowed.  The 
niLLS  beyond  the  river  are  blue  and  beautiful.  The  house 
erected  by  the  church  is  a  parsonage.  The  trees  planted  along 
the  river  grow  rapidly.  The  lines  written  by  Coleridge  are 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  collection.  The  man  who  sits  next  to 
the  speaker,  is  the  president.  The  SUM  which  was  collected  last 
Sunday,  has  already  been  expended.  The  EVIL  abovt  which 
you  have  said  so  much,  has  been  often  noticed. 

How  many? 

Seven  men  were  wounded.  A  thousand  soldiers  make  a 
regiment.  Twenty-Jive  carriages  followed  the  hearse.  Only 
one  person  was  seen  in  the  canoe. 

Of  what  kind? 

A  terrible  titunder-storm  passed  over  the  city,  A  beautiful 
lake  lay  in  front  of  the  house.  Silvery  clouds  fringed  the 
horizon.  Iron  railing  is  very  durable.  Small  and  beautiful 
FLOWi^RS  hung  from  the  rocks.  A  Colt's  revolver  was  in 
his  belt.  A  hunter's  rifle  was  the  only  gun  we  had.  Isa- 
bella, a  pious  and  noble  queen,  assisted  Columbus.  Collins, 
a  poet  of  the  most  delicate  sensibilities,  died  in  the  prime  of  life. 
A  SHIP  of  the  largest  size  was  sunk  by  this  rifled  cannon.  A 
man  of  good  habits  generally  enjoys  good  health.  The  feath- 
ers of  ducks  and  geese  are  used  for  beds.  A  person  governed 
by  his  inclinations  only,  is  apt  to  be  fickle.  A  lady  admired 
and  praised  for  her  beauty,  is  apt  to  become  vain.  Plants 
reared  in  cellars  are  seldom  strong.  Laws  to  prevent  such 
outrages  should  be  enacted*  A  dinner  to  suit  the  occasion 
was  prepared.  The  man  who  does  not  keep  his  word,  should 
not  be  trusted.  The  trees  which  are  of  the  smallest  size,  gen- 
erally grow  on  high  places.     There  arose,  about  this  time,  firom 


80  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

i 
the  lower  ranks  of  the  people,  a  jian  named  Cromwell,  of  incrc' 
diUe  depth  of  understanding,  strict  integrity,  and  unwavering 
resolution,  |  who  with  one  hand  held  successfully  the  reins  of 
civil  authority,  and  with  the  other  hurled  victoriously  the  thunder- 
bolts of  war, 

PREDICATE. 
Is  what? 

Life  is  short.  Time  is  precious,  "War  is  ruinous.  Cotton 
ts  dear.  Farmers  are  generally  industrious.  Tomatoes  are 
wholesome.  Tomatoes  are  red  or  yellow.  The  pine-apple  is 
sweet  and  Juicy.  The  cat  is  a  useful  animal.  John  is  an  idle 
hoy.  The  turkey  is  a  native  of  America.  The  eagle  is  a  bird 
of  great  power.  The  home  of  the  brave  ts  the  home  of  the 
free.  Gratitude  is  the  memory  of  the  heart.  Hope  is  the 
Uossom  of  happiness. 

Does  what? 

Lambs  play.  Eagles  soar.  Cars  run.  Bears  growl  and 
hite.  My  head  aches.  James  is  gathering  hazel-nuts.  Mary 
IS  PARING  apples.  These  islands  produce  spices.  Cassar 
FOUGHT  many  battles.  You  have  made  an  enemy  of  him. 
George  gave  me  a  piece  of  his  apple.  He  told  the  story  to 
his  brother,  and  then  they  both  laughed. 
Has  what  done  to  it? 

The  door  was  shut.  The  stranger  was  bitten  by  the  dog. 
The  book  was  sent  by  mail.  The  field  had  been  reaped. 
The  meat  will  be  cooked  in  a  few  hours.  The  treasures 
of  the  pirates  were  buried  on  an  island.  The  cargo  t^as 
landed.  The  bells  were  rung.  The  old  house  was  torn  down 
by  the  %vorkmen.  Our  apples  must  be  gathered  next  week. 
The  book  is  weU  printed  and  bound.  Most  people  are 
easily  deceived  by  fair  appearances. 
TVhen? 

Words.  —  Come  soon.  I  called  afterwards.  I  have  never 
seen  him.     Ho  has  always  been  in  debt.     Let  us  start  early. 


LOGICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.       31 

Flirar.es.  —  He  visits  us  every  day.  I  go  to  school  in  the  morn' 
ing.      The  robber  was  hanged  before  noon,  \  about  ten  o'clock. 

Clauses.  —  Remain  till  I  return.  We  often  deceive  ourselves, 
while  we  try  to  deceive  others.  When  wolf  eats  wolf  there  is 
nothing  else  in  the  woods  to  eat.  We  used  to  go  to  bed  at 
nine  o'clock,  when  we  lived  in  the  country.  My  heart  dilated 
with  honest  pride,  as  I  recalled  to  mind  the  stem  yet  amiable 
characters  of  our  Revolutionary  fathers. 

Where? 

Words.  —  Stop  here.  I  called  there.  Yonder  comes  your 
father.     I  found  no  amusement  anywhere.     He  lives  above. 

Phrases.  —  He  visited  us  at  home.  We  went  into  the  country. 
There  is  a  railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Have  you 
made  a  fire  in  my  room  ?  On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  we  can 
see  the  ebony  in  bloom. 

Clauses.  —  The  enemy  put  their  cannons  icho'c  no  enemy 
could  approach  them.  Where  honesty  takes  root,  the  blessing  of 
God  makes  it  a  tree.  Wherever  there  is  honey,  there  you  wiU 
also  find  bees.  As  far  as  we  went,  there  was  nothing  but  des- 
oladon. 

How? 

Words.  —  Move  briskly.  I  knocked  gently.  The  boatmen 
sang  merrily.  Did  your  goods  sell  well?  The  procession 
moved  slowly  and  solemnly. 

Phrases.  —  It  rained  in  torrents.  She  dresses  after  the  Span- 
ish fashion.  We  keep  without  remorse  that  which  we  acquire 
without  crime.  Half  the  people  in  the  world  live  at  the  ex- 
pense  of  the  other  half  Here  comes  the  body  of  Caesar, 
mourned  by  Mark  Antony,  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the 
wolf  on  the  fold. 

Clauses.  —  She  behaved  as  every  modest  young  lady  should 
behave.  The  honest  man  speaks  as  he  thinks  ;  the  flatterer,  as 
others  like  to  hear.  As  you  work,  so  shall  you  thnve.  The 
stosm  howled  and  tore  as  if  it  would  uproot  the  forest  altogether. 


32  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Why? 

Words.  —  Therefore  go.  Why  did  you  knock  ?  Wherefore 
did  you  not  write  ?     Hence  we  parted. 

Phrases,  —  She  died  of  grief  The  soldiers  perished  from 
hunger  and  thirst.  The  accident  happened  through  carelessness. 
He  wQut  for  pleasure.  I  want  money  to  buy  books.  He  called 
to  see  you. 

Clauses.  —  He  feels  very  much  dejected, /or  he  cannot  find 
employment.  I  sent  for  the  doctor,  because  the  child  was  very 
sick.  Since  you  will  have  it  so,  I  will  go  with  you.  Live  vir- 
tuously, that  you  may  be  happy. 

As  to  what? 

Phrases.  —  She  is  ashamed  to  dance.  She  has  not  the  courage 
to  speak  to  him.  He  is  poor  in  money,  but  rich  in  knowledge. 
I  am  fond  of  strawberries  and  raspberries.  I  paid  the  book- 
seller for  the  books.  He  is  indolent  about  every  thing.  I  am 
able  to  pay  him. 

Clauses.  —  I  consent  that  you  go  and  see  him.  I  feared  lest  I 
should  lose  it.    I  am  glad  that  we  have  peace  again. 

Propositions,  or  Simple  Sentences,  combined. 
Our  thoughts  consist  of  propositions,  either  single  or  com- 
bined.    Propositions  are  combined  in  many  different  senses. 
The  following  are  the  principal  modes  of  combining  them. 

Addition. 

The  coffee  was  good,  and  the  rolls  were  excellent.  I  was 
alone,  and  the  night  was  dark  and  stormy.  That  boy  is  very 
studious,  and  he  is  loved  by  all  his  classmates.  The  rivulet 
rested  clear  as  crystal  in  the  rocky  urn,  and  large  blue  violets 
hung  over  the  surrounding  moss. 

Contrariety. 

He  is  a  small  man,  but  he  is  very  strong.  We  started  early, 
hut  we  came  an  hour  too  late.  He  is  stout  and  healthy  in 
appearance,  yet  he  has  always  been  sickly.     We  lost  the  battle, 


LOGICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SENTENCES.      83 

notwithstanding  we  did  our  utmost  to  win  it.     Although  he  is 
accused,  yet  he  is  innocent. 

Alternation,  or  Choice. 

I  will  either  send  you  my  horse,  or  you  may  hire  one  at  my 
expense.  Neither  spend  your  money  before  you  have  it,  nor 
buy  what  you  do  not  need.  Either  he  will  hate  the  one,  and 
love  the  other ;  or  else  he  will  hold  to  the  one,  and  despise  the 
other. 

Cause. 

This  field  will  produce  well,  because  the  soil  is  fertile.  I 
refused  his  present,/or  I  knew  he  offered  it  from  selfish  motives. 
He  is  angry ;  therefore  let  him  alone.  As  it  is  impossible  to 
go,  let  us  remain  contentedly  at  home.  Since  we  cannot  enjoy 
this  world  long,  is  it  not  strange  that  most  people  are  so  very 
avaricious  ? 

Sometimes  a  sentence  will  consist  of  a  combination  of  dif- 
ferently connected  propositions ;  as,  "  Great  men  undertake 
great  things,  because  they  are  themselves  great ;  but  fools  un- 
dertake them,  because  they  think   them  easy."     (Cause   and 

contrariety.) 

Condition* 

Jf  I  were  in  your  place,  I  would  join  the  army.  Would 
you  go,  if  you  should  be  invited?  ij^ there  were  no  evil  lis- 
teners, there  would  be  no  evil  talkers.  So  it  answers  the  pur- 
pose, it  will  matter  little  how  indifferent  it  is. 

No  Connective  expressed. 

When  no  connective  is  expressed,  the  connecting  sense  gen- 
erally is  that  of  and,for^  but,  if  or  that  is. 

The  woods  are  hushed,  the  waters  rest.  Every  age  has  its 
pleasures ;  every  situation  has  its  charms.  It  is  not  too  late :  it 
is  only  nine  o'clock.  He  who  renders  a  service,  should  forget 
it;  he  who  receives  it,  should  remember  it  That  concerns 
you,  does  it  not  ?  Would  you  thrive  ?  rise  at  five.  (If  you 
would  thrive,  etc.)  Had  he  done  his  duty,  he  would  not  now 
be  in  disgrace. 

2*  0 


PART   II. 
i  "WORDS  xji^com:bin'ki>. 


GRAMMAR  AND  ITS  DIVISIONS. 

69.  Grammar  is  the  science  which  teaches  how  to 
speak  and  write  correctly. 

70.  English  Grammar  is  the  science  which  teaches 
how  to  speak  and  write  the  EngHsh  language  correctly. 

Every  language  can  be  investigated  according  to  the  following 
particulars :  — 

1.  The  sounds  of  its  words. 

2.  The  forms  of  its  words. 

3.  The  classification  of  its  words,  according  to  their  meanings  and 
variations. 

4.  The  combination  of  its  words,  in  the  construction  of  sentences. 

5.  The  finish  and  ornament  of  sentences.     Hence,  — 

71.  English  Grammar  is  divided  into  five  parts,* 
Pronunciation^  Orthog'raphy^  Etymology^  Syntax,  and 
Pros'ody. 

72.  Pronunciation  treats  of  the  sounds  and  classifica- 
tion of  letters,  and  of  the  sounds  and  stress  of  syllables  in 
uttering  separate  words. 

73.  Orthography  treats  of  the  forms  of  letters,  and 
teaches  how  to  spell  words  correctly. 


PRONUNCIATION.  85 

74.  Et3rmolog7  treats  of  the  derivation,  classes,  and 
properties  of  words. 

7j.  Syntas  treats  of  the  relations  and  arrangement 
of  words  in  sentences. 

73.  Prosody  treats  of  figures,  versification,  utterance, 
and  punctuation. 

77.  The  basis  of  grammar,  or  the  test  of  correctness 
in  the  use  of  language,  is  the  usage  of  the  best  writers 
and  speakers. 

PRONUNCIATIOK 
LETTERS  AND  SOUNDS. 

78.  Language  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  sounds, 
which  are  used  as  the  signs  of  ideas,  and  are  called  words. 

79.  These  sounds  can  all  be  reduced  to  a  small  num- 
ber of  simple  sounds,  which  are  represented  to  the  eye 
by  means  of  letters. 

80.  A  Letter  is  a  character  that  denotes  one  or  more 
of  the  elementary  sounds  of  language,  and  is  the  least, 
distinct  part  of  a  written  word. 

Examples.  —  A,  b,  c ;  age,  at,  art ;  fiuJMe ;  cent,  cart. 

81.  The  English  language  contains  about  forty  ele- 
mentary sounds,  which  are  represented  by  twenty-six 
letters,  called  the  alphabet. 

The  Phoneticians  make  forly-three  elementary  sounds. 
Long  Vowels  * :  ee\  ale,  arm,  all,  ope,  food. 
Short  Vowels  :  ell,  an,  odd,  t/p,  foot. 
Shade  Vowels  :  earth,  air,  ask. 

*  That  the  pupil  may  not  confound  the  letters  with  their  powers,  let  him 
substitute  "  Vocals  "  for  "  Vowels,"  "  Diphthong  Vocals  "  for  "  Diph- 
thongs," and  "Liquid  Sounds"  for  "Liquids." 


86  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Diphthongs  :  isle,  oil,  owl,  mule. 

CoALEscEKTS :  f/ea,  way. 

Aspirate:  /iay. 

ExPLODENTS  :  ro/)e,  ro&e,  fa^e,  fac7e,  etch,  edge,  lock,  log. 

Co.s TIN  u ANTS :  sa/e,  saye,  wrea//i,  wreai/te,  buss,  biu2,  vicious, 
vision 

Liquids  :  Ml,  far. 

Nasal  Liquids  :  seem,  seen,  siw^r. 

If  we  consider  the  foregoing  "  diphthongs "  composite,  equivalent 
to  ci-i,  o-X,  a-oo,  and  i-oo,  our  language  will  have  but  thirty-nine  simple 
sounds.  If  we  regard  c  as  a  more  slender  sibilant  than  s ;  and  if  o, 
as  heard  mform,  is  broader  or  more  orotund  than  a,  as  heard  in /ally 
then  we  shall  have  forty-one  simple  sounds  in  all.  —  Sec  p.  61. 

82.  Some  letters  represent  several  sounds  each ;  as  a  in  atf 
art,  oil,  etc. 

83.  Sometimes  different  letters  represent  the  same  sound ; 
as  c  and  s  in  "  since  "  and  "  sense." 

84.  Sometimes  two  or  more  letters  represent  but  one  sound ; 
as  ph  =f,  in  phleme  ;  eau  z=  o,  in  beau  ;  ch,  in  church. 

85.  Hence  our  alphabet  is  both  defective  and  redundant; 
for  a  perfect  alphabet  should  have  one  letter,  and  but  one,  for 
every  simple  sound. 

8S.    The  name  of  a  letter  is  what  it  is  called  in  the  alphabet. 

87.  The  power  of  a  letter  is  the  sound,  or  oral  element, 
represented  by  the  letter.  Some  letters  have  several  powers 
each. 

The  name  of  a  letter  is  generally  one  of  its  powers,  or  a  syllable 
that  shows  the  power ;  but  the  name  and  the  power  should  not  be 
confounded.  Thus,  a  represents  the  sounds  of  a,  a,  tf,  a.  Kay  shows 
the  power,  or  oral  element,  represented  by  k. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    LETTERS. 

88.  The  Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  conso- 
nants ;  the  consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels^ and  some  of  the  semivowels  are  called  liquids. 


PRONUNCIATION  87 

Vowels. 
89i    A  Vowel  is  a  letter  that  denotes  pure  tone. 

The  vowel  sounds  are  formed  by  keeping  the  organs  of  speech 
more  or  less  apart  or  open,  or  by  letting  the  voice  flow  out  freely. 
The  organs  of  speech  are  the  lips,  the  teeth,  the  tongue,  the  palate, 
and  the  g'oUis. 

90.  The  vowels  are  a,  c,  z,  o,  and  w.  Also  w  and  ij 
are  vowels,  when  equivalent  to  the  vowels  u  and  i;  as  in 
now  and  tyrant. 

91.  A  Diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  to  de- 
note one  sound. 

Ex.— Peoper:  oil,  enjoy ,  gr<wnd.  Improper:  ear,  powr,  jour, 
deceit,  sl^-ight, 

92.  A  diphthong  is  proper,  if  the  two  vowels  are 
heard,  or  denote  a  sound  different  from  that  of  either; 
improper,  if  only  one  vowel  is  heard. 

93.  A  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  to 
denote  one  sound. 

Ex.  —  Beauty,  bureau,  \iew,  Meu,  huoy. 

94.  Triphthongs  are  also  divided,  like  diphthongs,  into 
proper  and  improper. 

Consonants. 

95.  A  Consonant  is  a  letter  that  can  be  fully  uttered 
only  with  the  aid  of  a  vowel  sound.  It  denotes  a  contact 
of  some  of  the  organs  of  speech,  called  an  articulation. 

Some  of  the  consonant  sounds  we  modify  by  emitting  breath ;  as 
in  the  sounding  of  th  or  /.     //  denotes  only  an  emission  of  breath. 

Some  of  the  consonant  sounds  we  modify  by  using  the  head  as  a 
Bort  of  drum ;  as  in  the  sounding  of  m  or  I. 


88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

96.  The   consonants   are   all   the    letters   except  the  - 
vowels. 

97.  TV  or  2/  is  a  consonant,  when  a  vowel  sound  fol- 
lows it  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  water,  T-o-wa,  year, 
Bun-jan. 

98.  U  and  i  are  consonants,  when  equi\-alent  to  the  consonants  w 
and  y ;  as  in  pnr-made,  ponAard,  u-7iU  (consonant  and  vowel). 

X  is  equivalent  to  ks,  gz,  or  c ;  as  in  /ax,  ex-act,  'Kci-xes. 

99.  A  Mute  is  a  consonant  that  has  no  sound  what- 
ever without  the  aid  of  a  vowel,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
word  stops  the  voice  entirely. 

100.  The  mutes  are  h,  p,  c?,  t,  Ic,  q\i  (=  ^w) ;  also 
c  and  g  hard,  as  in  lac  and  gig. 

101.  A  Semlvo.wel  is  a  consonant  that  has  some 
sound  of  its  own,  being  in  its  nature  between  a  vowel 
and  a  mute. 

102.  The  semivowels  are  all  the  consonants  except  the 
mutes. 

103.  The  Liquids  are  Z,  m,  w,  r ;  and  perhaps  s  and 
«,  which  are  sometimes  called  sibilants. 

The  liquids  are  so  called  from  their  soft  sound,  which 
easily  flows  into  and  unites  with  that  of  other  letters. 

Ex.  —  String,  brilliance.  "Lull  with  Amelia's  liquid  name  the 
Kine."  —  Pope. 


104.  A  letter  is  said  to  be  silent,  when  it  is  suppressed 
in  pronunciation. 

Ex.  —  WaZk,  kiln,  ni^7it,  victuals,  7iour,  phiKxsic. 

105.  In  singing,  vowel  sounds  are  made  most  prominent; 
and  clear  and  distinct  utterance  is  attained  chiefly  by  pronoun- 
cing the  consonants  with  exactness. 


PEONUNCIATION.  89 

ACCENT. 

1C6.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  on  a  certain  syllable 
of  a  word. 

Ex.  —  Bak'-er,  a-77mse  ;  an  cn'-trance,  to  cn-trance.  "  An  au- 
gust'  procession  in  the  month  of  ylu'-gust." 

Accent  belongs  only  to  words  of  more  syllables  than  one. 

Accent  sometimes  serves  to  distinguish  words  that  are  spelled  alike,  or 
to  show  the  chief  part  of  the  word. 

107.  Words  of  three  or  more  syllables  generally  have 
a  chief  accent,  called  the  primary  accent;  and  one  or 
more  inferior  accents,  called  the  secondary  accent  or 
accents. 

Ex.  —  Lu'-mi-na'-ry,  an'-te-ce'-dent,  in-com'-pre-hen'-sl-bil'-i-ty. 

IC8.  Some  words,  mostly  compounds,  have  two  ac- 
cents of  nearly  equal  stress. 

Ex.  —  A'-men',  fare'-well'  (interjection),  knit'-ting-nee'-dle. 

1C9.  lihe penult  syllable  of  a  word  is  the  second  sylla- 
ble from  the  end ;  and  the  antepenult  is  the  third  sylla- 
ble from  the  end. 

110.  Most  words  used  in  our  language  have  the  chief 
accent  either  on  the  penult  or  else  on  the  antepenult. 

Pkn'ULT  :  Con '-quest,  at-tor'-ney,  dis-a-gree'-ment,  Jer-e-mi'-ah. 
Antepenult:  Tem'-per-ate,  con-tin'-u-al,  mu-ta-bil'-i-ty,  Je-ru'- 
sa-lem. 

111.    RULES   FOR   PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  Give  to  every  syllable  its  proper  sound. 

Do  not  say  hen  for  heen^  tcCtre  for  were,  hlate  for  bleat,  dreen  for 
dram,  leow  for  coic,  toon  for  tune,  sassy  for  saucy,  rcnch  for  rinse,  luf 
for  lionf,  pint  for  jioinl,  lam  for  learn,  only  for  only,  puine  for  (jolng^ 
otter  for  after,  icinder  for  tLnndow,  meader  for  meadow,  hostile  for  hoS" 
(ilej  gcntdne  for  genuXne^  America  for  Americd,  Canader  for  Canada, 


40  ENGUSH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  Be  careful  not  to  omit  any  letter  or  letters  of  a 
syllable,  nor  any  syllable  or  syllables  of  a  word,  that  are 
not  silent. 

Do  not  say  hep  for  Icept^  ness  for  nests^  lenth  for  lengtli,  strenth  for 
strength^  sriib  for  shrub,  sriek  for  shriek,  mornin  for  morning,  shinin  for 
shining,  chile  for  child,  wuss  for  worse,  goverment  for  government^  hick- 
ry  for  hickory,  parlicler  for  particular,  spose  for  suppose. 

3.  Place  the  accent  on  the  proper  syllable. 

Do  not  sa.y  fan -atic  for  fanat'-ic,  interest' -ing  for  in'-teresting,  i'-dea 
for  ide'-d,  museum  for  muse'-um,  indus'-try  for  in'-dustry,  in'-quiry  for 
inqui'-ry,  hospit'-al  for  hos'-pital. 

4.  Bear  in  mind  that  derivative  words  are  not  always 
accented  or  pronounced  like  their  primitives. 

Pyr'-amid,  pyram'-idal,  not  pyr'-amidal ;  converse',  con'-versant^ 
not  convers' -ant ;  lament',  lam'-entable,  not  lament'-able;  pre-serve'y 
pres-ervation,  not  preservation;  a-pos'-trophe,  dp-os-troph'-ic,  not 
a-pos'-t7'ophic. 

5.  Remember  that  a  change  in  the  part  of  speech 
sometimes  requires  a  change  in  the  accent. 

To  absent',  to  be  ab'-sent ;  to  escort',  an  es'-cort ;  to  perfume',  a 
per'-fume. 

But  sometimes  we  suppose  such  words  differ  in  pronunciation, 
when  they  really  do  not.  To  ally',  an  a%',  not  al'-ly ;  to  consent' j 
my  consent',  not  consent. 

6.  In  doubtful  cases,  pronounce  words  according  to 
their  spelling  or  according  to  analogy. 

Lieutenant  h  better  pronounced  loo-ten'-ant  than  lev-ten-ant. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 
FORMS    OF    THE   LETTERS. 
112.    The   letters   are   used   in   different  styles  ;    cis, 
Roman,    Italic^    g/cii/U,   and  (DIb  (EnglisI). 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  41 


113t   The  letters  are  printed  in  types  of  various  sizes: 

Great  Primer,     smaii  pica,      m;;!-, 

^       , .  ,  Long  Primer,       ^^ate, 

liUgllSn,  Bourjreois,  rcarl, 

Pica,  ^''^'''^''' 

111.    The  letters  are  used  either  as  capital  letters  or 
lower-case  or  §mall  letters. 


CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

115*  Small  letters  are  preferred  in  all  ordinary  writ- 
ing, except  where  capital  letters  are  needed  for  dis- 
tinction. 

116.  Words  that  begin  with  capital  letters,  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes  ;  First  Words,  and  Words  that 
are  themselves  Words  of  Distinction, 

First  Words. 

117.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  or  phrase  equiva- 
lent to  a  sentence,  or  the  first  word  after  a  full  pause,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

For  examples,  see  any  page  of  this  book. 

118.   Within  a  sentence,  the  first  word  of  any  impor- 
tant beginning  may  commence  with  a  capital  letter. 
Ex.  — "  Itesolved,  That  our  senators  be  requested,"  etc. 

"  One  truth  is  clear:  Whatever  is,  is  right."  —  Pope. 
W.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York,  that  a  tax,  etc. 

1.  Any  part  of  a  sentence,  especially  in  enumeration,  that  is 
broken  off  to  begin  a  new  line  for  the  purpose  of  making  it 
more  conspicaous,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


42  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  —  "  Our  citizens  have  contributed  — 

*'  To  ihe  support  and  improvement  of  schools,      .     S  12,275 ; 
"  To  the  building  and  repairing  of  bridges,     .     ,     .     5,130." 
"  I  am,  Sir,  with  sincere  esteem, 

"  Your  faithful  servant, 

*'  Robert  Peel,** 
W.  The  work  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  use  of  schools,  — 
by  thorough  and  varied  exercises; 
by  frequent  and  complete  reviews; 
by  simplicity  of  terms  and  arrangement. 

2.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  an  example,  or  other 
saying,  so  introduced  as  to  imply  a  transition  from  one  speaker 
to  another,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  Solomon  says,  "Pride  goeth  before  destruction."  Eemem- 
ber  this  ancient  maxim:  "  Know  thyself "  She  called  out,  "Why 
did  you  go?"  He  answered,  No.  Stare  is  often  used  in  a  bad 
sense ;  as,  "  The  impudent  fellow  stared  at  me." 

W.  They  shouted,  "  victory."  Every  tongue  shall  exclaim  with 
heartfelt  joy,  welcome !  welcome  !  La  Fayette. 

But  indirect  quotations  or  questions,  resumed  or  partial 
quotations,  and  words  quoted  merely  as  language,  should  not 
begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.  —  Solomon  says,  that  pride  goes  before  destruction.  Sha 
asked  me  why  I  went.  This  is  indeed,  as  Chatham  says,  "  a  peril- 
ous and  tremendous  moment." 

With  Mr.  Headley,  an  event  always  "  transpires."  —  Poe. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  "  But  now  the  smiles  are  thicker, 
Wonder  what  they  mean ; 
Faith,  he  's  got  the  Knicker- 
Bocker  Magazine  ! "  —  Saxe. 
"W.   Now  bright  the  sunbeam  on  St.  Lawrence  smiles, 
her  million  lilies,  and  her  thousand  isles. 


OKTHOGRAPHY.  43 

"Words   of  Distinction. 

IID.    TliG  words  J  and  (9  should  always  be  capitals. 

Ex.  —  "  For  /  will  not  forsake  thee,  0  friend  of  my  youth." 

W.   He  knew  i  was  there.    Such,  o  music  !  is  thy  heavenly  power. 

120.  Every  word  denoting  the  Deity  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  The  Host  High;  the  Supreme;  the  Infinite  One;  to  God 
and  his  angels ;  Divine  Trovidence ;  our  Lord  Jesus  Chi-ist ;  the  Fa- 
ther, the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 

*'  The  hope  of  my  spirit  turns  trembling  to  Thee"  —  Moore. 

"W.  The  holy  spirit;  the  eternal;  the  omnipotent;  our  saviour; 
to  him  who  is  the  Jfiiend  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan. 

1.  A  common  word  that  merely  relates  to  God,  must  some- 
times begin  with  a  capital  letter,  to  show  its  reference  to  the 
Deity. 

Ex.  —  "  The  Hand  that  made  us  is  divine."  —  Addison.  "  Fie  who 
is  the  Mend  of  the  universe,  overlooks  no  small  things." — John 
Wilson. 

2.  A  pronoun  used  in  connection  with  a  name  that  is  the 
chief  word  denoting  the  Deity,  usually  requires  no  capital. 

E».  —  "God  provides  for  all  hh  creatures."  —  Blair.  "O  thou 
merciful  God!" — Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

W.    O  Lord,  Thou  Who  art  merciful  and  omnipotent,  save  us. 

3.  An  ordinary  adjunct  used  as  a  part  of  a  name  that  de- 
notes the  Deity,  or  a  word  that  describes  rather  than  denotes 
the  Deity,  usually  requires  no  capital. 

Ex.  —  The  all-seeinf)  Searcher  of  our  hearts ;  great  Parent  of  good  : 
to  Him  who  is  the  friend  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan. 

W.   The  King  of  Kings,  and  lord  of  lords  ;  the  judge  of  the  world. 
They  were  made  by  the  Wisdom  and  Goodness  of  thy  Hand. 

121.  Every  proper  noun,  or  each  chief  word  of  a 
proper  noun,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


44  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  —  Tliomas,  Snsan,  Sunday,  Monday,  May,  Alabama;  George 
Washington  ;  Amelia  B.  Welby ;  the  Duke  of  Wellington ;  Charles 
the  First.  When  a  word  Implying  distinction  or  honor  is  constantly 
used  with  a  proper  noun,  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  name  itself.  (The 
teacher  should  explain  to  the  pupil  what  a  proper  noun  is.) 

W.   mary,  george,  march,  Saturday,  kentucky,  henry  1.  gaylor. 

122.  Every  title,  whether  used  alone  or  in  connection 
with  a  proper  noun,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  Mr.  Brown ;  Mrs.  Elizabeth  B.  Browning ;  Dr.  Yaughan ; 
Maj.  Holt;  Gen.  Washington;  Sir  Isaac  Newton;  James  M.  Mar- 
low,  Esq.'y  Alexander  the  Great;  a  letter  from  the  Hon.  Robert 
Wells.  "  The  petty  governor  of  Shiraz  has  the  title  of  '  Flower  of 
Courtesy,' '  Nutmeg  of  Consolation,"  and  '  Rose  of  Delight.'" —  Gaz- 
etteer.    " '  You  are  old.  Father  William,'  the  young  man  replied." 

—  Southey.    *'  So   Master   Dick  went  off  on   his  travels."  —  0.   W. 
Holmes.    "  The  Doctor  now  heard  the  approach  of  clattering  hoofs.'* 

—  Id. 

W.  From  capt.  Jones ;  lord  Byron ;  Joseph  Allen,  esq. ;  a  speech 
from  gov.  Andrew.  John  bull  can  tell  brother  Jonathan  what  are 
the  consequences  of  being  too  fond  of  glory. 


Proper  names  consist  chiefly  of  the  names  of  persons,  places,  and 
time.  They  are  therefore  very  numerous,  amounting  to  millions. 
And  since  it  is  not  always  easy  to  make  a  new  and  acceptable  prop- 
er name,  a  common  word  or  phrase  of  the  language,  whose  meaning 
is  supposed  to  suit,  Is  often  taken  and  made  a  sort  of  proper  name. 

1.  When  a  new  proper  noun  is  made  from  an  old  one,  by 
the  addition  of  some  common  word,  the  common  word  gener- 
ally begins  with  a  capital. 

Ex. —  Orleans,  New  Orleans;  Cambridge,  East  Camlridge;  Bos- 
ton, South  Boston,  Boston  Neclc;  Scott,  Gen.  Scott;  Jefferson,  Jef' 
ferson  City;  Madison,  Madison  Square;  Astor,  Astor  House;  Ver- 
non, Mount  Vernon;  Pike,  Pike's  Peak;  Mexico,  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico;  Britain,  the  British  Channel. 

W.  Rhode  island;   Miller's  landing;   lower  California;   Japan 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  4^ 

sea;  Harper's  ferry;  Lafayette  place;  Hudson's  bay;  the  bay  of 
Honduras;  lake  Erie;  cape  Ann;  mount  Auburn;  Cook's  inlet; 
Bchring's  strait ;  the  strait  of  Magellan ;  Queen  Charlotte's  sound ; 
Faneuil  hall ;   William  and  Mary's  college. 

2.  When  a  common  word  or  phrase  of  the  language  is 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  proper  noun  for  a  particular  object, 
the  word  or  chief  words  should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.  —  The  Park;  Salt  River;  Great  Bear  Lake ;  Lake  Superior; 
the  Black  Sea;  Big  Sandy;  Land's  End;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope; 
the  United  States;  the  Western  States;  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon; 
the  Old  South  Church;  the  City  Hall;  a  book  called— The  Tem- 
ple of  Truth. 

To  this  Lead  may  be  referred  the  titles  of  boots  and  topics. 

"W.  The  laurel  hills;  the  dead  sea;  white  river;  sandy  hook;  a 
hill  called  cedar  crest;  the  lake  of  the  woods;  point  lookout;  the 
five  points;  pea  ridge;  the  white  sulphur  springs;  the  rocky  moun- 
tains; union  square;  central  park;  oa  fifth  avenue,  near  spruce 
street;  from  the  common,  to  the  dry  dock. 


123i  A  common  noun  applied  to  a  personified  object, 
often  becomes  a  proper  noun  in  sense,  and  should  then  be- 
gin with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  — "  The  Wind  and  the  Svn  loved  the  EosCf 

But  the  Base  loved  but  one ;  • 

For  who  recks  the  wind  where  it  blows. 
Or  loves  not  the  sun."  —  Bulwer. 
W.   Pride,  poverty,  and  fashion,  once  undertook  io  keep  house 
together. 

121,  Every  word  derived  from  a  proper  noun  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  Columbia,  American,  Boman,  Jesuit,  Christian,  Scotchman. 
"  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age."     "  A  SoiUhern  man  is  from  the  South." 

"W".   These  Spaniards  joined  the  Italian  army. 

123t   But  when  such  a  word  has  lost  its  reference  to 


46  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

the  proper  noun,  and  lias  become  a  common  word  of 
the  language,  it  should  not  begin  with  a  capifal. 

Ex.  —  A  guinea,  sandwiches,  damask,  daguerrotype,  galvanize, 
cbiua-ware. 

126t  A  word  of  special  importance  or  emphasis,  or  a 
word  so  peculiarly  or  technically  applied  as  not  to  be 
sufficiently  definite  if  written  otherwise,  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex.  —  The  General  Assembly;  the  excellence  of  our  Constitu- 
tion; tlie  War  Di'partment ;  William  Penn  with  several  Friends; 
the  American  Revolution.  "  The  Ui-form  Bill."  —  Low/on  Times. 
"Education  is  the  great  business  of  the  Institute."  —  Ilolmesi.  "The 
other  member  of  the  Committee  was  the  Rev.  Mr.  Butters,  who  Avas 
to  make  the  prayers  before  the  Exercises  of  the  Exhibition."  —  Id. 

W.  Put  tliis  motto  upon  the  banner :  "  The  union,  the  constitu- 
tion, and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws." 

Frequently,  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing  rule,  the  subject  of 
discourse  is  commenced  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  ''The  disasters 
•which  this  little  band  of  Puritans  encountered"  —  Ecerelt. 

\21t  In  capitalizing  phrases  or  sentences,  whether  used 
as  titles  or  as  headings,  distinguish  the  nouns  by  capitals  ; 
^Iso  important  adjective.^,  parti(!iples,  or  other  words  ;  but 
always  write  the  mere  particles  in  small  letters. 

Ex.  —  Episcopal  Tnnorafion  ;  or,  ihe.  Test  of  ^  for  fern  Orthndoxj/^  in 
Eiyhty-seven  Qaesdnns,  imposed  as  A  rticles  of  Fnilhy  upon  Candidates 
for  Licenses  and  Ilohj  Orders^  in  the  Diocese  of  Peterboroiujli ;  with  a 
jyis'inct  Answer  to  each  Qnestion,  and  General  Refections  relalice  to 
their  Illegal  Structure  and  Pernicious  Tendency.  —  Sidxey  Smitii. 

123.  Names,  titles,  or  mottoes,  vrhen  very  ernphatir»,  or 
when  designed  to  catch  the  eye  from  a  distance,  are  frequently 
printed  or  painted  wholly  in  capitals.  And  in  Advertisements 
or  Notices,  the  liberty  of  capitalizing  is  carried  to  a  great  and 
almost  indefinite  extent. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  47 

Examples  to   be   Corrected. 

Formula.  —  Incorrect:    the  word  ,   beginning  with  a  small — ^ 

should  begin  with  a  capital  — ;  because .  (Give  the  precept  violated, 

lis  presented  on  some  preceding  page;   and  vary  the  Formula  when  a 
variation  is  needed.) 

1.  These  Birds  go  South  in  Winter,  but  return  in  Spring 
or  Summer.  —  Audubon. 

2.  for  Rent  or  Sale,     balance,  $  9.25. 

3.  When  Laud  was  arraigned,  "  can  any  one  believe  me  a 
traitor  ?  "  exclaimed  the  astonished  prelate.  —  Bancroft. 

4.  The  question  is,  which  of  them  can  best  pay  the  penalty  ? 

5.  The  answer  may  be,  yes  or  no. 

G.  The  bible  says,  children,  obey  your  parents. 

7.  Tiie  blood  of  those  who  have  Fallen  at  concord,  lexins- 
ton,  and  Bunker  hill,  cries  aloud,  "  it  is  time  to  part," 

8.  Lindley  murray  teaches,  "when  a  quotation  is  brought  in 
obliquely  after  a  comma.,  a  Capital  is  unnecessary ;  as.  solonion 
observes.  That  the  child  is  spoiled  by  sparing  the  rod." — • 
octavo  grammar^  P.  284. 

9.  Washington  city,  the  Capital  of  the  united  states,  is  in 
the  district  of  Columbia. 

10.  This  chief  had  the  sounding  appellation  of  white  thunder. 

11.  In  ancient  days  there  dwelt  a  sage  called  discipline. 

12.  There  lay  madam  partlet,  basking  in  the  sun,  breast- 
high  in  sand. 

13.  Falsehood  sheltered  herself  among  the  passions. 

14.  This  County  was  settled  by  welsh  emigrants,  who  were 
zealous  christians,  and  entered  heartily  into  our  revolutionary 
struggle. 

15.  New  year's  day  and  the  fourth  of  July  are  holidays. 
IG.  Cowper,  the  Author  of  the  Task,  was  a  good  Poet. 

1 7.  The  secretary  of  state  visited  fortress  Monroe. 

1 8.  The  president  lives  in  the  white  house. 

19.  He  was  President  of  the  IMassachusetts  historical  society, 
and  the  Editor  of  the  Boston  daily  advertiser. 


48  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

20.  The  Missouri  compromise  was  discussed  in  the  senate. 

21.  A  presbjterian  minister  preached  every  Sunday  at  west 
Brookfield. 

22.  She  is  gone  to  him  who  comforteth  as  a  father  com- 
forteth. 

23.  The  Guests  were  entertained  by  mayor  Rice,  at  his 
residence,  no.  34,  union  park. 

24  Believe  not  each  aspersing  tongue, 

as  most  weak  people  do ; 
but  still  conclude  that  story  wrong 
which  ought  not  to  be  true. 


SYLLABLES. 

129i  A  Syllable  is  a  letter,  or  a  union  of  letters,  pro- 
nounced as  one  unbroken  sound. 

Ex.  —  A,  on,  no,  stretched,  barb'dst,  a-e-ri-al,  pro-fu-sion. 

ISOi  Every  syllable  must  consist  of  one  or  more  vow- 
els, or  of  one  or  more  vowels  combined  with  one  or 
more  consonants. 

Ex.  —  O,  i-dle,  au-tumn,  bro-ker,  an,  ants,  dot,  breast 


SYLLABICATION. 

131.  Syllabication  is  the  division  of  words  into  sjd- 
lables. 

132.  Words  are  divided  into  syllables,  to  show  their 
pronunciation  or  derivation. 

Ex.  —  De-pose,  dep-o-si-tion,  re-in-force-ment,  lov-er,  rain-bow. 
Syllabication  thus  enables  us,  in  writing,  to  divide  words  properly 
at  the  ends  of  lines. 


ORTHOGRAPHY,  49 

133.  In  dividing  words  into  their  syllables,  we  should 
give  to  every  syllable  precisely  those  letters  which  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  the  word  gives  to  it. 

Ex.  —  Su-prem-a-cy,  pro-cras-ti-nate,  pref-ace,  oth-er,  ma-ter-nal, 
as-tron-o-my,  twin-kle,  tic-kle,  Rob-ert,  E-llz-a-beth. 

W.  Plan-ting,  un-loa-ding,  ma-keth,  or-ga-ni-zing,  e-squire,  go- 
vern, cons-ti-tu-tion,  va-le-tu-din-a-ri-an,  mark-et, 

131.  Words  should  generally  be  divided  according  to 
their  prefixes,  suffixes,  or  grammatical  endings,  if  they 
have  any ;  and  compound  words  should  be  divided  into 
their  simple  ones. 

Ex. —  Re-new,  ring-let,  great-er,  wis-cst,  ful-ly,  boat-swaln. 

"W.  Dril-ling,  wea-vcr,  a-noth-er,  wi-ser,  ren-ted. 

135.  When  derivation  and.  pronunciation,  conflict,  the 
division  must  be  made  according  to  the  pronunciation, 

Ex. —  Ap-a-thy,  not  a-patb-y ;  rec-ol-Iec-tion  (remembrance),  ap- 
os-tol-lc-al,  ther-mom-e-ter,  pred-i-cate,  prop-o-si-tion. 

W.  A-«cribe,  or-tbo-grapb-y,  pre-fer-ence,  de-po-si-tion,  par-ti-ci- 
pi-aL 

136.  A  word  tliat  has  more  syllables  than  one,  may  be 
divided  at  the  end  of  a  line»  but  only  at  the  close  of  a 
syllable. 

The  part  in  either  line  should  consist  of  at  least  more  letters 
than  one,  and  be  of  such  a  nature  that  It  Is  not  likely  to  be  miscon- 
ceived at  the  first  impression.  Such  words  as  a-long,  a-gain^  o-lioy 
craft-y,  read-y^  curv-ed,  should  rather  stand  wholly  in  one  line  ;  and 
such  words  as  accompli-ces,  advunta-ges,  should  rather  be  divided 
<iccom-pUc€s^  advan-tages^ 

Divide  into  syllables  :  — 

Artery,  sorcery,  luscious,  varnish,  blanket,  pickle,  musket, 
extraordinary,  possession,  decision,  nevertheless,  western,  mon- 
key,  paternal,    vmserviceable,    reformation,    j-ecreate,   reelect, 


60  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

grafter,  rafter,  charter,  chanter,  waiter,  traitor,  felony,  felonious, 
active,  picture,  pitcher,  lounger,  noisy,  knitting,  shilling,  willing, 
azure,  national,  siren,  soldier,  associate,  pronunciation,  Boston, 
Diana. 

EULES    FOR    SPELLING. 

137.  Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their 
.right  letters,  properly  arranged.  This  art  must  be 
learned  chiefly  from  spelling-books,  dictionaries,  and 
observation  in  reading. 

Eule  I.  — Doubling. 

Words  of  one  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant 
preceded  by  a  single  vowel ;  and  words  of  more  syllables, 
ending  in  the  same  way,  with  the  accent  fixed  on  the 
last  syllable,  —  double  the  consonant  before  a  vowel  in 
the  derivative  word. 

Ex. —  Sad,  sadder,  saddest ;  rchel',  rebelled,  rebellion ;  rob,  robber; 
win,  xcinning;  fop,  foppish;  drum,  drummer;  up,  upper;  cidmit,  ad-^ 
mittance;  quiz,  quizzed. 

In  other  cases,  no  doubling  takes  place. 

Ex. —  Seal,  sealed;  gild,  gilded ;  hard,  harder;  infer',  (inffirVe^,) 
inference;  bigot,  bigoted;  tax,  taxed,  X  final  =  tvv'o  consonants,  ks 
or  gz  ;  therefore  never  doubled. 

There  i»  a  difference  between  roled  and  robbed,  planinr;  and  planning,  hater  and  Jiaitcr, 

Good  writers  sometimes  double  /,  contrary  to  the  Rule  above. 
Ex.  —  "  Traveller  **  —  Prescott,  Brgant ;  "  carolled  "  —  Irving. 

Eule  II.  — Final  Y. 

Final  Y",  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  followed  by  any 
letter  except «,  is  changed  into  i  in  the  deriv^ative  word. 
Ex.  — Fly,  flies  \  glory,  glories,  glorifg,  glorified,  glorifying,  glorify 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  61 

cation ;   try,  trial ,    pretty,  prettier,  prettiest ;   merry,  merrily,  merri- 
ment: p'\ty,  pit i( tide  ;  'wy,  icied. 

J'Jxccp  t  io  n  s:  Tlloit  of  the  derivatives  of  sly,  dry,  and  sliy  usually 
retain  y ,  as,  dryly,  slyness. 

Final  Y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  or  followed  by  z,  remains 
unchanged  in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex.  —  Chimney,  chimneys;  gay,  f/aycr,  gayest,  yayety ;  cry,  crying, 
crier;  buoy,  buoyant;  destroy,  destroyer;  annoy,  annoyance;  joy, 
joyfid. 

Exceptions:  Pay,  yjaiV/;  said,  laid,  daily;  staid  (remained), 
stayed  (checked). 


Rule  III.— Pinal  E. 

Final  E,  when  silent,  is  rejected  before  a  vowel  in  the 
derivative  word.  But  it  is  retained  wjien  needed  to  keep 
c  or  g  soft,  or  to  preserve  the  identity  of  the  word. 

Ex.  —  Bite,  hi'dng ;  force,  forcible  ;  sale,  salable ;  rogue,  roguish. 
Agree,  agreeable;  peace,  peaceable;  shv^^e, singeing ;  g\uc,  gluey. 
Th'jre  is  a  diffjrence  between  dying  and  dyeing,  singing  and  singeing. 

AVords  ending  -with  ie  change  i  into  y,  before  i,  to  prevent  the 
doubling  of  i;  as,  Die,  dying  :  vie  vying ;  tie,  tying ;  lie,  lying. 

Final  E  is  retained  before  a  consonant  in  the  derivative 
word.     Sometimes  it  is  rejected  when  not  needed. 

Ex.  —  'S^ase,  baseless ;  me,  rueful;  definite,  definitely ;  eye,  eyelet; 
whole,  loliolesome,  but  wholly.  Due,  duly;  true,  truly;  a,we,auful; 
judge,  judgment.     {D  softens  the  g,  and  renders  the  e  unnecessary.) 

Monosyllables  that  end  with  /,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  generally  have  this  consonant  double,  as  cli^,  mill,  pass  ; 
words  that  end  with  any  other  consonant  in  the  same  way, 
generally  have  it  single,  as  man,  cat,  map.  The  final  consonant 
of  a  primitive  word  generally  remains  double,  but  should  not  be 
trebled,  in  the  derivative  word,  as  in  blissfidy  skillfalf  fidly^ 


52 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


One  /  is  often  dropped  from  //,  especially  when  the  accent  is  on 
some  other  syllable ;  as  in  shall,  always,  ivelcome,  fuljill',  use'ful. 
Derived  verbs  generally  prefer  the  ending  ize  to  ise,  as  legal, 
legalize.  El  after  c,  as  in  ceiling,  deceive;  generally  ie  after 
any  other  letter,  as  in  siege,  lien,  sieve.  Specie^  seize,  inveigle, 
and  a  few  other  words,  are  exceptions. 

Compound  words  generally  rstain  the  spelling  of  the  words 
from  which  they  are  formed ;  as,  housewife,  juryman,  illness, 
wherein.  Where,  wherever  ;  whose,  whosever  ;  sheep,  shepherd; 
feet,  fetlock  ;  pass,  pastime  ;  well,  welfare  /  holy,  holiday,  —  are 
some  of  the  exceptions. 

138.  Generally  speaking,  spelling  and  pronunciation 
are  the  better,  the  better  they  agree,  and  serve  to  dis- 
tino-uish  words  that  differ  in  meanino;. 

Ex.  —  Gray  is  preferable  to  grey ;  haul,  to  hale ;  and  show,  to  sheio. 

1S9.  Contraction,  in  spelling,  is  the  omission  of  some 
letter  or  letters  from  a  word.  An  apostrophe  (')  is 
generally  put  in  the  place  of  what  is  omitted. 

Ex.  —  E'er,  ever ;  o'er,  over ;  'gainst,  against ;  o'clock,  of  the  clock. 

Sometimes  two  or  more  words  are  contracted  into  one,  and  the 
parts  combined  are  occasionally  changed  in  spelling.  'Tis  or  it's  is 
used  for  it  is  ;  won't,  for  will  not ,'  I'd,  for  /  would  or  /  had. 


Exercises  in   Spelling. 

Miscellaneous. 

Scarred, 

scared, 

solely, 

wholly, 

till, 

until, 


EULB  I. 

Rule  II. 

RULK  III. 

Swimming, 

"Witticism^ 

Pining, 

steaming. 

laziness, 

pinning. 

thinned, 

g»yety, 

valuable. 

learned, 

wearisome, 

chargeable. 

airy. 

moneyed, 

striving, 

starry, 

allies, 

fusible, 

4fc 

ETYMOLOGY. 

I 

druggist, 

alleys. 

sedgy, 

truly, 

acquittal. 

reliable, 

smoky. 

singeing. 

benefited. 

relying. 

stylish. 

gluing, 

dreaded, 

thriftily, 

paroled. 

hoeing. 

referred. 

gayiy, 

patrolled, 

recall. 

reference. 

daily. 

vying. 

wiUful, 

regretted. 

likelihood, 

advertisement, 

countryman, 

propeller, 

holiday. 

traceable, 

receipt, 

shopping. 

spied. 

servilely, 

siege, 

galloping. 

spy-glass. 

acknowledgment. 

colonize. 

53 


140.  The  most  ludicrous  blunders  in  spelling  are  usu- 
ally made  by  the  misapplication  of  those  words  which 
agree  in  pronunciation,  but  differ  in  spelling  and  mean- 
ing. 

Correct  the  errors :  He  was  bread  for  the  church.  Hawks  pray  on 
other  birds.  The  judge  immediately  haled  the  prisoner.  The  bench- 
es were  all  in  tears,  one  above  another.  All  those  barrels  for  sa'd^ 
at  ten  o'clock. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


WORDS. 

141.  Letters  make  syllables,  syllables  make  words, 
words  make  sentences,  and  sentences  express  thoughts. 

142.  A  Word  is  a  syllable,  or  a  union  of  syllables, 
used  as  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

Ex.  —  Man,  horse,  pink,  gi-een,  strikes,  down,  because. 

143.  WonDS  are  divided,  according  to  their  number 
of  syllables,  into  mono  syllables  ^  dissyllables  ^  trisyllables, 
and  polysyllables. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAJIMAK.  . 

A  monosyUahU  is  a  word  of  one  syllable.       ^ct, 
A  dissyllable  is  a  word  of  two  syllables.      ,  Active. 
A  trisyllable  is  a  word  of  three  syllables.       Actively, 
A  polysyllable  is  a  word  of  fo\ir  or  more  syllables. 

Activity. 

144.  "Words  arc  divided,  according  to  their  formation, 
into  primitive,  derivative,  and  compound, 

A  primitive  word  is  not  formed  from  another  word. 

Breeze, 
A  derivative  word  is  formed  from  another  word.  Breezy. 
A  compound  word  is  composed  of  two  or  more  words. 

Sea-breeze,  neverihQless. 

145.  Words  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into 
nine  classes,  called  parts  of  speech.  —  See  p.  70. 

DERIVATION    OF   WORDS. 

146.  The  elements  of  words,  in  derivation,  are  rootSy 
prefixes,  and  suffixes. 

147.  A  Root  is  the  chief  part  of  a  word,  or  that  part 
which  receives  the  prefix  or  the  suffix. 

148.  A  Pre^fix  is  a  letter  or  letters  joined  to  the  be- 
ginning of  a  word,  to  modify  its  meaning. 

149.  A  Suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  joined  to  the  end 
of  a  word,  to  modify  its  meaning. 


Prefixes. 

De,  down. 
7?e,  again. 

Roots. 

De  -  press ;  to  press  down. 
Be  -  build ;  to  build  again. 

Ex,  out. 
Con,  together. 
Un,  not 

Ex  -  pel  (drive)  ;  to  drive  out. 
Con -nect  (join);  to  join  together. 
Un  -  sound;  not  sound. 

ETYMOLOGY.  66 

Suffixes.  Roots. 

Able,  can  be.  Kead-aWe  ;  can  be  read. 

Er,  person  or  thing.  Itead-er;  one  wlio  reads,  a  reading-book. 

En,  to  make.  Blaek-e/i ;  to  make  black. 

Ne.fs,  state  or  quality.  Hai)pi-nes.9 ;  the  state  of  being  happy- 

y,  having,  reseaibliug.  Ston-y ;  having  stones,  hard  as  stone. 

Sometimes  a  word  has  two  or  more  prefixes  or  suffixes ;  as,  re-pro- 
duct.-ioe-7ie.ss. 

150.  Hoots  are  either  native  or  foreign,  and  sometimes 
much  disguised. 

Ex.  —  Baker?/  is  derived  from  hal'e.  A  ttract'  is  derived  from  the 
Lalin  ar/,  to,  and  traho,  I  draw.  Idea.,  from  the  Greek  eldo,  I  sec, 
denotes  something  "  in  the  mind's  e}  e." 

151.  Derivative  words  are  formed  from  primitives,  by- 
means  of  prefixes  or  suffixes ;  and  compound  words  are 
formed  bj  uniting  primitives  or  derivatives* 

Ex.  — Plant,  7'e-plant,  /ra/?.<?-plant,  ?m-plant.  Act,  act-or,  act-«Ve^ 
act-ft'iVy  ;  great,  great-c^Y.     liluchimith,  speUing-book. 

152.  There  are  different  prefixes  capable  of  expressing 
the  same  sense,  and  there  are  also  diflerent  suffixes  ca- 
pable of  expressing  the  same  sense.  The  choice  of  pre- 
fixes or  suffixes  is  therefore  determined  not  merely  by 
their  meaning,  but  also  by  euphony,  analogy,  and  the 
character  of  the  root. 

Ex. —  Generous,  wn-generous;  accurate,  tn-accurate;  throne,  <fc-" 
throne,  «w-throne ;  confess,  confess-ion ;  acknowledge,  acknowledg- 
ment. 

153.  Frequently,  in  making  derivative  or  compound 
words,  some  of  the  parts  must  be  altered  for  the  sake  of 
euphony  or  analogy.  Hence  there  occurs  sometimes  a 
change^  an  omission^  or  an  insertion  of  some  letter  or 
letters.  The  last  letter  of  the  prefix  must  often  be  the 
same  as  the  first  letter  of  the  root. 


66  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Ex. —  Con-lect,  col-lect;  dis-fer,  dif-fer ;  in-moderate,  im-mode- 
rate;  con-operate,  co-operate ;  dis-vul^e, di-vulge ;  a-archy, an-arc% ; 
mucilage-ous,  mucilag-inous. 


Compound  Words. 

154.  Two  or  more  words,  expressing  but  one  concep- 
tion, or  habitually  used  together  as  the  term  for  one 
object  or  idea,  should  be  compounded. 

Ex.  —  Horseman,  gooseberry,  rainbow,  to-morrow,  four-footed. 
*'  A  five-cent  savings-bank ; "  "  blue-eyed,  golden-haired  Mary." 

A  crow  is  a  black  bird,  but  not  a  blackbird.  A  glass  house  is  made 
of  glass ;  but  a  glass-house  is  a  house  in  which  glass  is  manufactured. 
A  live  oak  is  simply  a  living  oak ;  but  a  live-oak  is  a  species  of  ever- 
green oak.  A  dancing  master  is  a  master  that  dances ;  but  a  dan- 
cing-master teaches  dancing.  A  w?iite  washed  house  may  not  be  a 
white-washed  house.  Many-colored  birds  have  many  colors  each ; 
many  colored  birds  are  numerous,  though  they  may  all  be  of  one 
color.  A  dog's-ear  is  the  corner  of  a  leaf  turned  over ;  but  a  dog's 
car  is  the  ear  of  a  dog.  A  lady's  slipper  is  a  shoe  \  but  lady's-slipper 
is  a  plant. 

155.  When  a  compound  word  is  first  formed  or  but 
little  used,  a  hyphen  is  generally  placed  between  its  parts. 

Ex.  —  Night-robber,  rosy-fingered  ;  the  tree-and-cloud-shadowed 
river. 

156.  By  long  and  general  use,  most  compound  words 
lose  the  hyphen,  provided  the  parts  coalesce  like  the 
syllables  of  one  word  and  under  one  chief  accent. 

Ex.  —  Statesman,  steamboat,  railroad,  inkstand,  no'bleman,  book'- 
seller,  home'sickness,  notwithstand'ing. 

For  more,  in  regard  to  compound  words  see  pp.  260  and  345. 

[A  sufficient  knowledge  of  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  roots  is  so  generally 
obtained  from  spelling-books  and  other  sources,  that  we  have  followed  the 
advice  of  many  eminent  teadiiers,  and  omitted  the  rest  of  this  subject.] 


QUESTIONS. 


67 


QUESTIONS   FOR  EEVIEW. 


Wbat  is  Grammar?  .  .  .1169 
What  is  English  Grammar?        .  70 

Into  what  parts  is  it  divided?  .  71 
Ot  what  does  Pronunciation  treat?  72 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  ?  73 
Of  what  does  Etymology  treat?  .  74 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat?        .  75 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat?  .      76 

What  is  the  basis  of  grammar  ?  77 

Of  what  does  language  consist  ?  .  78 
To  what  can  these  sounds  be  reduced  ?  79 
AVhat  is  a  letter  ?  .  .  .  .80 
How  many  elementary  sounds  has 
the  English  language?  and  how 
many  letters  to  represent  them  ?  81 
What  is  the  name  of  a  letter?  .  86 
Wiiat  is  the  power  of  a  letter  ?  .  87 

Our  alphabet  is  both  defective  and 

redundant :  explain  how  it  is  so.  82-5 
How  are  the  letters  classified  ?   .  88 

AVhat  is  a  vowel  ?  .  .  .  .89 
Which  letters  are  vowels  ?  .  90 

What  is  a  diphthong?  ...  91 
A  proper  diphthong?  An  improper  ?  92 
What  is  a  triphthong?  ...  93 
What  is  a  consonant?         .        .  95 

Which  letters  are  consonants?  .  95 
When  are  w  and  y  vowels  ?   and 

when  consonants  ?  .  .  .  90,  97 
What  is  a  mute?  ....  99 
Which  letters  are  mutes  ?  .  .  100 
What  is  a  semivowel  ?  .  .  .  101 
AV' hicli  are  the  semivowels  ?  .  102 
Which  letters  are  called  liquids? 

and  why  ?  ....        103 

When  is  a  letter  silent  ?  .  .  104 
What  is  accent?  .        .        .        lOG 

What  is  said  of  primary  accent  and 

of  secondary  accent?  .  .  107 
What  is  said  of  two  equal  accents  on 

the  same  word  ?        .        .        .        108 
Which  syllable  of  a  word  is  the  pe- 
nult ?    which  is  the  antepenult  ?     109 
Give  the  first  rule  for  pronuncia- 
tion ,  —  the  second  ;  —  the  third  ; 
—  the  fourth ;  —  the  fifth ;  —  the 

sixth Ill 

In  what  styles  are  the  letters  used?  112 
In  what  sizes  of  type  ?  .  .  .  113 
How  are  they  distinguished  in  form  ?  114 
How  are  small  letters  used?  and 

for  what  are  capitals  used  ?  .  115 
How  may   words   beginning    with 

capital  letters  be  classified?  .  116 
What  is  said  of  the  first  word  of 

every  sentence  ?        .        .        .        117 
When  are  capital  letters  used  with- 
in sentences?    ....        118 
What  is  said  of  parts  of  a  sentence 

that  begin  anew  ? 
Of  direct  quotations? 
Of  indirect  quotations? 
Of  lines  of  poetry  ? 

Of  ;  and  or 119 

3* 


49.  Of  words  denoting  the  Deity  ?     .      120 

50.  When  does  a  pronoun,  denoting  the 

Deity,  not  require  a  capiUil  ? 

51.  What  is  said  of  proper  names  ?        .  121 

52.  Of  titles  ? 122 

53.  Of  new  proper  names  made  from 

old  ones  ? 

54.  Of  common  phrases  made  proper 

names  ? 
Of  titles  of  books  ? 

55.  Of  the  names  (if  personified  objects  ?  123 

56.  Of  words  derived  from  proper  names?  124 

57.  When  should  such  a  word  not  begin 

with  a  capital  ?       .        .        .        .  125 

58.  What  is  siiid  of  words  that  are  par- 

ticularly important  or  emphatic, or 
that  are  used  in  a  technical  sense  ?  128 

59.  How  are  phrases  or  sentences  cap- 

italized?        irz 

60.  What  IS  a  syllable?       .        .        .      I'Ji 

61.  Every  syllable  must  have,  at  least, 

what  kind  of  letter?       .        .         ,  ISO 

62.  What  is  syllabication?  .        .      131 

63.  Why  are  words  divided  into  sylla- 

bles?       132 

64.  How  are  words  divided  into  sylla- 

bles?          133-5 

65.  What  is  said  of  dividing  words  at 

the  ends  of  lines  ? .        .        .        .  133 

66.  What  is  spelling  ? .        .        .        ,137 

67.  From  what  must  this  art  be  learned?  137 

68.  What  is  the  first  Kule? 

69.  What  is  the  second  Mule? 

70.  What  is  the  third  Kule? 

71.  What  is  said  of  contraction,  in  spell- 

ing?        139 

72.  WhvLt  is  a  word  ?  .        .        .        .142 

73.  How  are  words  classified  according 

to  their  syllables?         .         .        .143 

74.  What  is  a  monosyllable? 

75.  What  is  a  dissyllable  ? 

76.  What  is  a  trisyllable  ? 

77.  What  is  a  polysyllable  ? 

78.  How  are  words  classified  according 

to  their  formation  ?       .        .        .  144 

79.  What  is  a  primitive  word? 

80.  What  is  a  derivative  word  ? 

81.  What  is  a  compound  word  ? 

82.  How  are  words  classified  according 

to  their  use  ? 145 

83.  What  are  the  elements  of  words,  in 

derivation? 146 

84.  What  is  a  root  ?    ....      147 

85.  What  is  a  prefix?    .        .        .        .148 
8G.  What  is  a  suffix?  .        .        .149 

87.  What  is  said  of  roots?     .        .        .150 

88.  From  what  are  derivative  and  com- 

pound words  formed  ?  .         .  151 

89.  What  variations  do  the  elements  of 

words  sometimes  undergo,  in  deri- 
vation ?  .        .        .  .        .  153 

90.  When  are  words  compounded  ?    .      154 

91.  When  is  the  hyphen  used?      .        .  i^-5 

92.  When  is  the  liyphen  omitted  ?    .      156 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OBSEEVATIOITS. 

Gframmar,  —  PinfC  tlic  difFticnt  naiions  of  llic  earth  speak  different 
languages,  —  as,  English,  French,  German,  Italian,  Spanish,  etc.,  —  every 
lanyuaije  has  many  peculiariiios  of  its  own  ;  and  these  peculiarities,  wl)ich 
generally  make  the  Imiden  of  its  grammar,  arc  sometimes  called  the  par- 
ticular t/raiiiinar  of  the  language  to  which  they  belong.  But  since  people 
and  the  world  arc  everywhere  much  alike,  and  since  people  tlierefore  think 
everywhere  nearly  in  the  same  way,  it  follows  that  all  languages  have 
much  in  which  they  agree,  and  this  is  sometimes  called  unirersal  (/rainmar. 
We  have  said  that  the  basis  of  grammar  is  the  usage  of  the  best  writers 
and  speakers.  This  usage  is  merely  a  convenient  test  for  determining 
what  is  proi)er  or  improper  ;  for  tlie  rcal  basis  of  grammar  must  l)e  sought 
in  the  laws  of  mind  and  in  the  requirements  of  thought,  or  it  is  the  philoso- 
phy of  thought  and  language  applied  to  the  requirements  of  human  knowl- 
edge in  all  its  extent  and  variety. 

As  to  the  two  kinds  of  language,  spoken  and  written,  spoken  language 
has  the  advantage  in  the  power  of  enforcing  its  meaning  by  means  of 
voice,  emphasis,  and  gestures  ;  but  written  language,  in  modern  times,  by 
the  help  of  the  press  and  other  facilities,  has  greatly  the  advantage  iu  du- 
rability and  the  almost  unlimited  powers  of  circulation. 

Pronunciatioil.  —  Among  the  educated,  the  pronunciation  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  is  everywhere  nearly  the  same;  but,  among  the  uneducated, 
there  is  considerable  diversity.  In  the  United  States,  however,  there  is 
less  deviation  from  the  literary  standard  than  in  Great  Britain. 

The  modern  pronunciation  of  the  P^nglish  language  differs  also  very 
much  from  that  which  prevailed  about  five  hundred  years  ago,  or  in  the 
time  of  Chaucer.     This  is  evident  from  the  old  spelling,  and  from  the  re- 
quirements of  the  rhyme  and  metre  in  old  verse. 
*'  The  soun  of  briddcs  for  to  hear. 

That  on  the  bushes  singen  clear." —  Chaucer. 
"And  she  was  cleped  Madam  Eglantine; 

Full  well  she  sange  the  service  divine."  —  Id. 
"  He  stode  the  bright  moone  to  beholde. 

And  alle  his  sorrowe  to  the  moone  he  tolde."  — Id. 
"Me  thinketh  it  accordant  to  reason. 

To  tellen  you  allc  the  condititJn."  —  Id. 
"  And  whanne  this  nlchymister  saw  his  timfe, 
Kis'th  up.  Sir  Priest,  quod  he,  and  stondeth  by  mc."  —  Id. 
Here  fii\al  e's,  and  other  endings  not  now  in  use,  are  made  syllables. 
Reason  and  condition  are  pronounced  with  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
somewhat  as  in  French.     Time  is  pronounced  ti-me ;  for  it  was  made  to 
rhyme  with  by  me. 


PRONUNCIATION.  *  69 

From  the  forcfioing  and  other  examples  we  may  infer  three  things  : — 

1.  Pronunciation  Ibrmcily  had  more  syllables  tliun  it  now  has.  Most 
of  these  extra  syllables  consisted  of  faint  or  draggling  syllables  at  the.  ends 
of  words.  In  some  German  dialects  the  people  have  even  at  the  present 
day  the  habit  of  annexing  obscure  a  to  most  of  their  words,  (somewhat 
as  bad  readers  annex  ers,)  by  which  they  apparently  make  their  speech 
more  rhythmical.  Query:  Was  the  English  language  ever  pronounced  as 
these  German  dialects  ? 

2.  Accent  was  formerly  more  Continental,  or  French,  than  it  now  is; 
that  is,  it  has  since  glided  more  from  syllables  near  the  end  to  syllables 
near  the  beginning  :  it  has  also  become  more  permanent.  In  Chaucer  we 
have  virtue  and  virtue,  nature  and  itdlure,  lam/d;je  and  Idnyage. 

3.  The  soutids  of  certain  words  are  now  different  from  what  they  were, 
and  the  vowel  sounds  have  generally  run  into  greater  variety.  An  was 
sounded  ain;  heart,  hert ;  (/old,  gould;  great,  great,  etc.  ("None  but  aa 
Irishman  would  say  great." —  Chesterjidd.)  Even  within  our  recollection, 
the  broad  sound  of  griiss,  half,  and  liist,  has  passed  into  grass,  half,  and  last. 

English  pronunciation  has  a  hasty  air,  tends  to  brevity,  slides  its  accents 
toward  the  left,  and  gradually  improves  in  melody,  or  ntusical  variety- 
An  omnibus  has  become  a  mere  'bus  ;  Brougham  is  pronounced  Broom ; 
Worcester,  Woos-ter ;  and  Michilimackimic  loses  its  serpentine  length  in 
Mack'-e-naw.  A  balco'  ny  has  become  a  bal'cony;  con' Urn  plate  is  now  more 
common  than  contem'-plate ;  o-be-je-ent  has  yielded  to  the  more  euphonious 
o-be-di  ent;  and  pro-tiun-ci-a-iion  is  becoming  more  common  than  pro-nuri' 
she-a-tion. 

Poetry  sometimes  adopts  antiquated  modes  of  expression  because  they 
tend  to  give  it  an  elegant  qnaintness.  But  poetry,  written  long  ago,  must 
sometimes  be  pronounced,  for  the  sake  of  the  rhyme,  as  the  language  was 
pronounced  when  the  verse  was  written. 

"Lo!  the  poor  Indian,  whose  untutored  mind 
Sees  God  in  clouds  or  hears  him  in  the  wind."  —  Pope, 
"  Tell  me,  where  is  fancy  bred,  — 
In  the  heart,  or  in  the  head  ? 
How  begot,  how  nourished?  "  —  Shalceapeare. 
Here  u-lnd  must  be  pronounced  wind,  to  rhyme  with  mind;  and  ed  must 
be  sounded,  so  as  to  rhyme  Avith  head. 

The  verbal  ending  ed  is  yet  heard  in  the  speech  of  some  very  old  peo- 
ple ;  but,  unless  the  word  is  used  adjectively,  as  in  the  phrase  a  Immcd 
man,  this  ending  is  now  generally  blended  with  the  preceding  syllable 
when  it  will  coalesce  with  it  in  sound. 

Accent.  —  l*   Words  ending  with  the  sound  of  shun,  zhun,  or  chun,  or 
2*  D 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

with  any  kindred  sound,  have  the  chief  accent  on  the  penult;  as,  content' 
pla'-tion,  decis'-ion,  conven'-tion,  artiji'-cial,  coura'-(/eous,  insuffi' -clent. 

2.  Words  ending  with  cive,  sive^  ic,  ics,  or  with  five  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, have  the  chief  accent  on  the  penult;  as,  deci'-sive,  hero'-ic,  sidphu'-ric, 
calisthen'-ics,  coiled -live. 

Exceptions:  Arith'-metic,  ar'-senic  (noun),  ad'-jective,  bish'-opric, 
cath'-olic,  chol'-eric,  ephcm'-eric,  her'-etic,  lu'-natic,  pol'-itic,  pol'-itics, 
rhct'-oric,  sub'-stantive,  tur'-meric,  and  perhaps  pleth'-oric  and  splen'etic. 

3.  Words  that  have  the  following  endings,  have  the  chief  accent  on  the 
antepenult :  — 

Acal,  acy,  athy.  Heli'-acal,  theoc'-racy,  sym'-pathy. 

E-al,  e-an,  e-ous.  Or'-deal,  Hercu'-lean,  sponta'-neous. 

Efy,  ety,  erous.  Stu'-pefy,  sati'-ety,  auriP-erous. 

Fluent,  Jluous.  Circum'-fluent,  super'-fluous. 

Gonal, j;raphy.  Diag'onal,  orthog'-raphy. 

La,  i-ac,  i-al.  Rega'-lia,  demo'-niac,  armo'-rial. 

I-an,  icul,  i-ous,  Colle'-gian,  astronom'-ical,  contume'-lious. 

Inous,  ify,  ity.  Om'-inous,  person'-ify,  solid'-ity. 

Logy,  loquy,  lysis.  Anal'-ogy,  col'-loquy,  paral'-ysis. 

Meter,  metry.  Barom'-eter,  trigonom'-etry. 

Orous,  ulous.  O'-dorous,  sed'-ulous. 

Phony,  tomy,  thropy.  Eu'-phony,  anat'-omy,  misan'-thropy. 

Exceptions:  Adamante'-an,  antipode'-an,  colosse'-an,  cano'-rous, 
empyre'-an,  hymene'-al,  hymene'-an,  pygme'-an. 

4.  Words  of  three  or  more  syllables,  ending  with  ative,  have  the  accent 
on  the  antepenult,  or  on  the  preceding  syllable ;  as,  demon' -strative,  op'-e- 
rative,  nom'-inative,  paV -liative,  spec'-ulatice. 

Exceptions:  Crea'-tive,  coUa'-tive,  dila'-tive. 

Letters.  —  There  is  not,  perhaps,  any  other  language  in  the  world  that 
has  experienced  so  many  revolutions  as  the  English  ;  but,  like  the  political 
institutions  of  the  people  by  whom  it  is  spoken,  it  seems  to  have  gained 
strength  and  excellence  by  every  change. 

About  a  thousand  years  ago,  our  ancestors  used  what  is  called  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Alphabet.     This  alphabet  is  as  follows :  — 

S  a,  B  b,  E  c,  D  b,  G  e,  F  p,  D  g:,  P  h,  I  i,  L  1,  CO  m,  N  n,  0  o, 
P  p,  R  p,  S  r,  T  fc,  U  u,  ID  p,  X  X,  Y  y.  p  J?  {th  aspirate),  D  tS  {tk 
vocal). 

Then  followed  the  Old  English,  or  Black  Letter. 

^  a,  33  b.  ffi  c,  JD  H,  22  c,  J?  f,  CS  n,  mtf,  K  f,  J  f,  1^  fe,  El, 
£B  m,  Kn,  ©  o,  ^  p,  ^  q,  3S-  r,  S  »,  S  t,  ©  ii,  17  b,  C®  to, 
Xy:,  ¥s,  Zf, 


.^jm.'* 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  61 

These  were  superseded  by  the  much  more  beautiful  Roman  Alphabet, 

which  is  the  alphabet  now  generally  used. 

Powers  of  the  Letters.  —  in  considering  the  alphabet,  we  should  no- 
tice, and  keep  distinct,  two  things  :  — 

1.  The  written  elements  of  language,  which  are  letters.  [breath. 

2.  The  oral  elements  of  language,  which  consist  of  tone,  articulation,  and 
Hence  the  oral  elements  have  been  sometimes  classified  into  vocals,  sub- 

Tocals,  and  aspirates.  But  this  classification  does  not  present  the  truth  be- 
yond the  vocals ;  for  nearly  all  the  elements  denoted  by  consonants  are 
composite.  The  following  is  probably  as  minute  an  analysis  of  the  oral 
elements  as  the  pupil  can  understand :  — 

Pure  tone. 
Ex.  — ^le,  ct,  art,  all,  mc,  met,  pine,  pin,  old,  odd,  move,  use,  us,  thou,  oiL 

Pure  breath. 

Ex.  —  ffat. 

Toned  articulation. 

Ex.  — Bib,  did,  glj,  judge,  loll,  mum,  nun,  ringr,  roar,  thus,  van,  loe,  yet,  cone,  azure. 

Aspirated  articulation. 
Ex.— r  Fi/c,  kick,  pop,  since,  tit,  theme,  sheep,  cAeap,  whip. 

The  powers  of  the  consonants  are  most  readily  obtained  by  simply 
omitting  the  vowel  sounds  with  wliich  they  are  uttered.  The  element  de- 
noted by  s  consists  of  a  whistling  sound  made  purely  of  breath.  Admit 
tone,  and  you  have  z.  The  sounds  denoted  by  the  consonants  v}  and  y  arc 
very  nearly  vowel  sounds.  The  same  is  true  of  h ;  or,  denoting  mere 
breath,  h  leaves  the  vowel  after  it  nearly  bare. 

C-ipital  Letters.  — Formerly,  every  noun  was  commenced  with  a  cap- 
ital letter;  and  other  important  words  of  the  sentence  were  sometimes 
commenced  in  the  same  way.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  usage 
in  fashion  a  hundred  years  ago  :  — 

"A  Deadly  Feud  had  long  fubfifted  between  the  Houfes  of  Malcolm  and 
Douglas ;  but  it  happened  that  the  Heir  of  Malcolm  faved  the  Heir  of 
Douglas  in  Battle,  and  this  Adl  produced  an  Inviolable  Friendfliip  between 
them." — London  Chronicle. 

Beginnings.  —  Persons  of  not  much  skill  in  composition  frequently 
find  a  difficulty  in  determining  when  they  have  a  sentence,  or  in  deciding 
how  to  divide  their  thoughts  into  sentences.  This  difficulty  must  be  over- 
come mainly  by  skill  in  grammar  and  composition.  A  proposition  (see 
p.  ^)  can  not  be  partly  in  one  sentence  and  partly  in  another ;  and  modify- 
ing words  or  phrases  should  remain  with  the  parts  which  they  modify. 
Propositions  closely  bound  together  in  sense,  should  make  but  one  sen- 


62  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

fence ;  but  propositions  loosely  connected  mny  often  be  cither  gathered 
into  one  sentence  or  divided  into  two  or  more  sentences. 

Exa,IIiple3.  —  When  jin  example  consists  of  a  proposition,  or  of  some- 
thing u-^ed  in  the  sense  of  a  proposition,  it  sliouhl  Ix'gin  with  a  capital  let- 
ter. But  wlicn  words  or  phrases,  used  for  illustration,  occur  in  the  body 
of  a  setitencc,  tliey  need  not  begin  with  capitals  if  the  meaning  is  suffi- 
ciently obvious  witiiout  them ;  though  usage  is  divided  in  regard  to  such 
expressions,  and  capitals  sometimes  distinguish  the  parts  better  than  small 
lettei-s. 

Verso.  —  When  verse  is  written  in  the  form  of  prose,  it  should  gener- 
ally Jiave  only  tlic  capitals  which  are  suitable  to  prose. 

Words  of  Distinction.  —  The  Indian  always  says,  •'  Great  Spirit,"  or 
uses  both  words  to  denote  God  ;  but  when  Poj)e  wrote,  "  Thou  great  First 
Cause,"  he  used  ynat  in  its  ordinary  descriptive  sense.  Tlie  Kivg  of 
Jiitifjs  shows  pre-cminenily  God's  relation  to  woildly  kings;  but  tlie  Angel 
of  Death  does  not  show  the  relation  of  any  angel  to  death.  The  Devil  de- 
notes Satan ;  but  a  den'l  ma>'  be  simply  a  bad  jicrson  or  spirit.  When  tho 
words  god,  (joc/dess.  dcitij,  diviniti/,  etc.,  are  applied  to  the  heathen  deities, 
they  do  not  begin  with  capitals.  When  3Iuiits,  daces,  Naiud.'i,  etc.,  arc 
regarded  in  the  splendor  of  ancient  imagination,  they  are  gcneraily  fii- 
vorcd  with  capitals;  but  our  own  ////ms,  nj/'/ihs.  (jhosls,  /lolx/ob/i us,  tic. ^sxvQ 
rather  too  puny  and  undignified  in  idea  to  be  thus  distinguished. 

The  names  of  important  individual  oljects,  as  spring,  sininnei;  autumn, 
winter,  time,  eternitij,  space,  stasorm,  morning,  ixxidng,  dai/,  niglit,  earth, 
heaven,  hell,  sun,  moon,  icurld,  universe,  nature,  equator,  zodiac,  north,  cast, 
etc.,  when  used  in  their  most  ordinary  sense,  or  when  their  ordinary  mean- 
ing predominates,  do  not  usually  begin  with  capitals;  but  wiien  they  aro 
used  in  a  specific  or  personified  sense,  they  should  begin  with  caj)itals. 
When  Heaven  denotes  God,  it  should  always  begin  wiih  a  capital  letter; 
and  when  it  denotes  the  abode  of  the  blessed,  it  ia  also  frequently  written 
with  a  capital. 

Lord's  Daif  is  equivalent  to  Sundajf.  AVm'  Yearns  Daif,  the  Fourth  of 
Juhj,  Uooil  Fridaij,  or  any  other  holiday,  is  as  much  a  particular  day  as 
Sitndai/,  or  any  other  day  of  the  week.  The  phra.ses  Fligij  in  a  Conntrif 
Churchi/ard,  Battle  of  lloheidinden,  The  Task,  are  as  much  the  names  of 
particular  poems  as  Jolin,  James,  and  Henri/,  are  the  names  of  particular 
boy.s.  "  Gray  took  hardly  more  pains  with  his  Elegy,"  not  dcfj//.  The 
goxpci  denotes  the  Christian  doctrines ;  but  the  Cospds  and  the  IlereJutKni 
denote  parts  of  the  New  Testament.  A  Mtfhodist,  a  RcpuUican,  a  Mnssul- 
vi'in,  or  a  Roarer,  belongs  to  some  religious,  political,  or  social  sect  or 
party.  "The  President  sent  the  document  to  Congress  ;  and  the  Senate 
returned  it  to  the  General  Asscmhly,  or  Legislature,  of  New  York." 


.X>X' 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  63 

Ilcnce,  the  names  of  hiolidays,  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  or 
monihs  of  the  year,  the  chief  woids  in  tlie  titles  of  Imoks,  tlie  names  of 
seers,  parties,  asbociution.s,  or  public  bodies,  should  begin  with  capital 
letters. 

Siiould  the  word  park  he  constantly  applied  to  a  particular  place  in 
stead  of  a  j)roper  name,  then  the  phue  should  be  called  the  Park,  not  the 
park.  If  1  should  use  the  phrase  Old  Dominion  for  the  proper  name-  Vir- 
ginia,  I  would  begin  each  word  of  the  i)hrase  with  a  capital  letter;  but  if 
I  should  t'all  Goldsmith's  Dcsertfd  Villa(je  Goldsmith's  <p-eat  poem,  1  would 
not  liegin  tlie  latter  words  with  capitals.  We  must  often  judge  whether 
the  spccilic  or  titular  sense,  or  else  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  words,  is 
uppermost  in  the  speaker's  mind,  and  use  capitals  or  small  letters  accord- 
ingly. Wclister's  Speeches  refers  to  a  hook,  or  to  their  title ;  while  Wib- 
ster's  speeches  refers  simply  to  the  speeches  as  such.  "I  went  with  him  to 
visit  tlio  Lakes;"  i.  c.,  a  celei>rated  group  of  lakes.  We  can  see  white 
mountains  in  almost  any  mountainous  country ;  !)ut  the  White  Mountains 
arc  in  New  Hampshire.  A  Caml)ridge  Professor  speaks  of  his  Essaif,  in 
referring  to  a  book  called  Canibri<i(/e  Essaijs ;  and,  having  introduced  Cap- 
tain IJarn/att,  In  afterwards  speaks  of  hitn  as  the  Captain,  not  as  the  cap- 
tain. When  I  speak  of  the  -principal  of  a  school,  I  refer  to  his  duties ; 
but  when  I  speak  of  tlie  Principal  of  a  school,  I  refer  to  his  title.  A  chap- 
ter in  your  histonj  refers  to  your  life;  but  a  chapter  in  your  Ilistorif  refers 
to  a  book  so  named.  "Part  1,  Ileniaik,  Observations,  Pules  for  Spell- 
ing," nfer  to  certain  divisions  or  headings  of  a  book.  Our  Club,  Piesi- 
dent,  Treasurer,  and  Secrttan/,  are  such  in  title  as  well  as  in  fact.  1'he 
London  Times  says,  "  Her  Majesty,  the  Prince  Cousoit,  the  Bride,  tho 
Princo  of  Wales,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Royal  Fan.ily,  were  pres- 
ent." Common  folks  would  not  have  been  thus  honored  with  capitals. 
An  astronomer  writes,  "  The  Sim  is  the  centre  of  the  System  ; "  because 
these  capitalized  words  denote  subjects  of  which  he  treats. 

When  I  s[)eak  of  the  Companij  or  the  Convention,  I  mean  to  guard  you 
against  thinking  of  the  wrong  one,  or  to  make  you  think  of  a  |tarticu!ar 
one.  Missouri  u  a  part  of  the  South,  though  it  lies  west.  If  the  North, 
East,  South,  and  West,  make  the  United  States,  then  any  one  of  theso 
states  is  a  Slate,  being  derived  from  a  proper  noun.  AVe  may  speak,  how- 
ever, in  general  terms,  of  the  states,  linrjdoms,  and  ewpins  of  the  earth. 
The  InSHrr(ction  was  )»rinted  with  a  capital  letter  only  wliilc  the  excitement 
lasted ;  but  I'lC  Reformation  and  the  RtvoluUon  are  still  matters  of  interest, 
and  retain  their  capitals. 

Ilcnce,  the  names  of  great  events,  of  important  places,  or  of  persons  in 
high  official  positions,  even  when  they  consist  of  common  words  of  the 
language,  should  generally  begin  with  capitals. 


64  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

When  a  term  consists  of  two  or  more  words,  and  especially  if  they  are 
linked  together  in  the  sense  of  apposition,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  de- 
termine how  many  capitals  should  be  used.  In  such  cases  we  should  care- 
fully  consider  how  much  makes  the  name,  or  whether  the  parts  are  sepa- 
rately significant.  The  Ohio  river  is  as  well  denoted  by  the  Ohio,  which  is 
a  sufficient  name  to  call  it  by,  and  which  implies  the  word  river ;  but  the 
Red  River  is  not  usually  called  the  Red,  nor  is  the  Blue  Rich/e  ever  called 
the  JDlue,  for  it  takes  both  words  to  make  the  name.  The  city  of  New 
York,  or  New  York  city,  is  generally  called  New  York;'  but  Jersey  City 
needs  both  words  to  make  the  name.  The  Erie  Canal  is  wholly  a  name; 
but  the  Erie  and  Ohio  canal  is  understood  as  being  simply  the  canal  be, 
tween  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  river.  In  the  phrase,  "  the  prophet  Jonah,'" 
the  words  are  separately  significant,  or  but  temporarily  united ;  but  in  the 
terms  Lake  Erie,  Mount  Vernon,  Cape  Hatteras,  Penobscot  Bay,  Queen  Eliz' 
abeth,  Loch  Gyle,  Ben  Lomond,  both  words  are  so  commonly  used  as  the 
name,  that  each  begins  with  a  capital  letter.  "  Victoria,  the  queen  of  Great 
Britain  ;  "  "  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots : "  the  former  phrase  is  explanatory, 
but  the  latter  is  also  titular.  In  this  country,  Esq.  is  always  used  as  a 
title,  and  therefore  it  properly  begins  with  a  capital  letter;  but,  in  Eng- 
land, esq.  is  oftcji  used  merely  as  a  term  of  rank,  and  therefore  in  English 
journals,  we  often  find  it  beginning  with  a  small  e.  Harper's  ferry  was 
once  a  ferry  belonging  to  a  man  named  Harper;  but  now  Harper's  Ferry 
is  a  town. 

W-hen  objects  are  very  common  and  comparatively  insignificant,  we 
often  find  that  only  the  specific  words,  and  not  the  general  words,  —  espe- 
cially when  the  latter  are  plural,  —  begin  with  capital  letters;  as,  "in 
Cass  and  Butler  counties."  The  words  county,  township,  hilt,  creek,  river, 
when  used  in  connection  with  specific  words,  are  not  generally  commenced 
with  capital  letters.  Street  we  find  written — Fifth  Street,  Fifth  and  Mad- 
ison Streets;  'Fihh-sireet,  Wiilnut-street,  Fifth  and  Walnut  s/ree/s  (the  hy- 
phen being  omitted  from  the  plural  phrase,  to  show  the  common  reference 
of  streets  to  the  two  words  before  it) ;  and,  histly,  Fifth  street.  The  first 
two  modes  are  best  authorized.  The  same  remark  applies  occasionally  to 
the  words  place,  square,  house,  church,  etc.  But,  in  all  cases  in  which  the  spe- 
cific word  is  also  a  common  word  of  the  language,  the  tendency  is,  to  begin 
the  general  word  with  a  capital  letter  too;  as,  "  Black  Sea,"  "Long  7.s/- 
and,"  "  White  River."  The  English,  in  many  cases,  compound  some 
kinds  of  the  foregoing  terms  ;  as,  "  Spring-gardens,  Leceister-place,  Hamp- 
den-street,  Arklow- house."  Only  the  first  part  of  a  compound  word  is  usu- 
ally commenced  with  a  capital  letter,  as  in  the  foregoing  terms;  but  when 
the  term  has  a  titular  sense,  each  part  is  more  generally  commenced  with 
a  capital,  as  "  Attorney- General." 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  65 

Personification.  —  A  word  denoting  a  personified  object  is  commenced 
with  a  capital,  only  when  it  has  strictly  the  sense  of  a  proper  noun  that  is 
applied  to  a  person;  as,  "And  /7o/>6  enchanting  smiled,  and  waved  her 
golden  hair."  But,  "  The  ship  lost  her  cargo."  "  '  Will  you  walk  into 
my  parlor  1 '  said  the  Spider  to  the  Fly,"  represents  the  spider  and  the  fly 
as  if  they  were  Mr.  A  and  Mr.  B. 

Derivatives.  —  The  word  Christian,  though  it  has  become  a  common 
word  of  the  language,  begins  with  a  capital  on  account  of  its  highly  hon- 
orable derivation.  The  word  Italic,  applied  to  letters,  is  often  commenced 
with  a  small  i ;  but  the  analogy  of  the  word  Roman  rather  tends  to  sus- 
tain the  capital  7. 

After  all,  in  regard  to  capital  letters,  something  must  be  left  to  taste,  or 
to  the  nice  intuitive  perceptions  of  the  wi'iier. 

Syllables.  —  Formerly,  words  were  divided  into  syllables  according  to 
their  derivation  and  vowels;  as,  or-tho-gra-phy,  ha-hit:  but  now  the  highest 
rule  is,  to  divide  them  as  they  are  pronounced ;  as,  or-tkog-ra-phy,  hub-it. 
In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  we  should  endeavor,  first,  to  show  the  ex. 
act  pronunciation  ;  secondly,  to  make  neat  syllables ;  and,  thirdly,  to  show 
the  derivation  of  the  words.  Quite  a  number  of  words  are  still  variously 
and  sometimes  inconsistently  divided  in  our  best  dictionaries.  The  follow- 
ing additional  rules  may  be  useful  to  the  learner. 

Vowels.  —  Diphthongs  and  triphthongs,  not  severed  ;  as,  loyal,  buoy-ant: 
voicels  making  different  syllables,  separated  ;  as,  a-e-ri-al,  co-op-e-rate :  vowels 
changed  to  consonants,  to  their  own  syllables  ;  as,  un-ion,  llq-uid,  brill-iant. 

Consonants.  —  Single  consonant  between  two  vowels,  and  not  shortening 
the  former  nor  sounded  with  it,  to  the  latter  syllabic  ;  as,  re-beV,  ha-zy,  easy  : 
shortening  the  former  towel  or  joined  to  it,  to  the  former  syllable  ;  as,  reb'-el, 
heav-y,  fraud-u-lent :  mute  and  liquid,  not  shortening  the  syllable  preceding, 
joined  to  the  latter;  as,  pa-trol:  shortening  it,  separated;  as,  cit-ron:  liquid 
and  mute,  blending  with  former  vowel,  joined  to  it;  as,  post-age:  not  both 
blending  with  former  vowel,  separated ;  &s,dan-gcr,  pas-tor:  two  consonants, 
in  other  cases,  generally  separated  ;  as,  sup-per,  mem-ber,  mos-sy,  collective, 
pic-ture,  pic-hle,  etc.  Ch,  sh,  th,  gh,  ph,  wh,  and  tch,  are  regarded  as  single 
letters ;  and  tion,  sion,  cious,  tient,  etc.,  as  single  syllables. 

Spelling.  —  The  spelling  of  the  English  language,  several  hundred 
years  ago,  was  much  more  clumsy  and  variable  than  it  now  is.  It  was 
spelled  it,  itt,  yt,  ytt,  hit,  hilt,  hyt,  or  hi/tt;  when,  whanne  or  ichnn  ;  company, 
compagnie;  truly,  treulyche;  earth,  eorthe ;  hands,  hondes ;  unkind,  unkuynde; 
should,  schdden ;  which,  quhiche  and  whiche  ;  since,  syghlhen  ;  qathered,  y-qad- 
ered.  In  the  course  of  time  there  was  introduced  a  Rule  to  double  the  con- 
fionant,  whenever  the  vowel  before  it  was  short;  and  to  leave  it  single, 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

when  the  vowel  was  long.  Accor(lin<;ly,  we  find  hadde,  ilmnnr,  starrr,  etc., 
for  had,  t/iun,  star.  The  efFect  of  this  rule  can  still  be  seen  in  such  words 
us  mill,  less,  chff;,  and  our  existing  rule  fur  doubling  the  final  consonant  in 
certain  cases,  is  probably  an  otFsiioot  from  the  same  rule. 

Formerly,  parlor,  labor,  vapor,  etc.,  were  spelled  parlour,  labour,  vapour  ; 
but  the  superfluous  «  is  now  rejected.  Formerly,  public,  music,  aritlnuttic, 
etc.,  were  spelled ////;/^V/',  viufick,  arilhinetick  ;  but  the  superfluous /j  is  now 
omitted  from  nearly  all  such  words  except  monosyllables.  A  few  verbs 
of  two  or  more  syllables  retain  or  assume  the  h  for  the  sake  of  the  pro- 
nunciation ;  as,  traffic^    mimic,  mimicked,  mimickiucj,  not  miiaicinj. 

Some  words  can  be  spelled  in  two  or  more  difFcrent  way?,  with  good 
authority  for  each  ;  as,  Jcmj  and  caj  ;  j/lotif/h  and  plow;  inquire  and  enquire ; 
traveler  SLX\(l  tra teller ;  hominij,  Itomonij,  and  hommoni).  But  this  diversity  is 
now  confined  to  a  comparatively  small  number  of  words  ;  and  the  better 
forms  of  these  words  will  probably  soon  exterminate  the  other  forms. 
Generally  speaking,  the  spelling  of  the  Knglish  language  is  so  irregular 
that  it  is  safer  and  better  to  learn  the  words  themselves  than  to  depend 
upon  rules. 

Derivation.  —  The  English  language  is  a  composite,  derived  from  a 
number  of  other  languages.  Hence  it  is  full  of  conflicting  analogies. 
The  chief  languages  from  which  it  has  been  formed,  are,  in  the  order  of 
time,  about  as  follows  :  — 

Celtic,  Sason,  Danish,  French,  Latin,  and  Greek. 
Its  groundwork,  its  syntax  and  idiomatic  pith,  are  essentially  Saxon. 
Nearly  all  the  most  common  words,  as  earth,  heaven,  icuter,Jire,  iviud,  wood, 
grass,  man,  ho'i.  ox,  cow,  sheep,  hen,  goose,  house,  mouse,  rat,  hand,  heart,  soul, 
love,  hate,  grief,  sorrow,  nje,  car,  hair,  arm,  fisl,Jinr/rr,  breast,  foot,  dui/,  nirjlU, 
viorning,  eceninrj,  month,  year,  summer,  winter,  word,  waij,  speak,  soi/,  whisper, 
smile,  laugh,  weep,  walk,  wash,  watch,  lie,  stand,  run,  dance,  creep,  JJi/,  come, 
go,  have,  hold,  good,  bad,  long,  short,  near,  far,  deep,  wide,  old,  jjoumj,  thin, 
thick,  sour,  bitter,  sweet,  I,  my,  you,  he,  she,  it,  who,  which,  that,  this,  so,  as,  thus, 
here,  there,  where,  ever,  never,  in,  on,  under,  up,  to,  from,  with,  by,  and,  both, 
for,  if,  since,  then,  than,  or,  but,  etc.,  are  Saxon.  The  other  languages 
which  have  contributed  most  words,  are  the  French  and  the  Latin.  The 
French  has  furnished  most  of  the  words  pertaining  to  refinement  and 
fashion.  The  Latin  and  the  Greek  have  furnishcil  most  of  the  terns  re- 
quired in  the  great  circle  of  scii'nccs  and  arts.  From  the  Latin  duco,  duc- 
tum,  to  lead  ;  capio,  cnplum,  to  take  ;  fro,  latum,  to  carry  ;  mitio,  missum,  to 
send;  lendo,  teusum,  to  stretch  ;  teneo,  tentum,  to  hold  ;  plico,  plicatam,  to  fold; 
pono,  jmsitum,  to  place ;  specio,  spectum,  to  look  ;  and  from  the  Greek  loqos, 
discourse ;  and  (/raphe,  writing,  —  ai-e  derived  about  2,000  English  words. 


ETYMOLOGY.  67 

It  is  said  that  the  English  language  has  about  100,000  words,  and  that 
about  13,000  of  these  are  derived  from  154  Latin  and  Greek  primitives. 

Tliat  spirited,  that  glorious  little  poem,  Campbell's  Hohenlindcn,  con- 
tains 198  words.  Of  tlicse,  170  are  Saxon ;  19,  French;  and  9,  Latin; 
making  about  86  per  cent  of  Saxon  words.  Probably  no  other  specimen 
of  English  literature  shows  so  well  the  simplicity  and  force  of  the  Saxon 
element,  and  what  preference  should  be  given  to  Saxon  words  in  our  daily 
use  of  language. 

A  word  can  sometimes  be  traced  through  a  number  of  languages.  The 
Greek  aner.  the  Latin  vii',  the  German  Heir,  the  French  sieur^  and  the 
English  sir,  are  all  of  them  essentially  the  same  word. 

Words,  like  people,  exist  in  families  and  kindreds.  Act,  actor,  action, 
active,  activiti/,  actuate,  actual,  actually,  etc.,  are  a  family;  and  hide,  hat, 
hood,  hut,  and  house,  are  all  akin.  So  are  bind,  band,  and  Land;  rest  and 
roost;  scale,  shell,  and  skull;  and  draw,  drag,  draggle,  drawl,  dray,  dredge, 
drudge,  drain,  train,  and  draft. 

Words  have  been  called  ybss/Z  poetry;  and  it  is  sometimes  very-  inter- 
esting to  trace  them  to  their  originals  and  kindreds.  An  acorn  is  an  oak- 
corn  ;  a  berry  is  what  a  bush  bears;  a  daisy  is  a  day's-eye;  clover  is  some- 
thing that  has  cloven  leaves  ;  a  field  is  a  place  where  the  trees  are  felled;  a 
yard  is  a  piece  of  ground  that  girds  a  house ;  what  is  wild,  is  scK-willed,. 
or  follows  its  own  ivill;  a  landscape  is  a  land-shape ;  fodder  is  food  for  feed- 
ing cattle  ;  an  ore  is  taken  from  the  earth  ;  heaven  is  what  is  heaved  (heav- 
en, giv-en)  or  arched  over;  a  hamlet  is  a  dear  little  home^  and  a  satchel  is  a 
small  sack;  a  neighbor  is  one  who  lives  nigh;  what  I  ought  to  do,  is  owed 
by  me  as  a  duty;  a  nostril  is  a  nose-drill,  or  nose-hole;  a  husband  is  the 
house-band,  or  support ;  a  man's  wife  once  was  the  weaver  of  his  house- 
hold ;  a  month  is  measured  by  the  inoon ;  he  who  is  tantalized  is  treated  or 
mocked  like  Tantalus ;  a  meandering  river  is  as  crooked  as  the  Meander,  a 
river  of  Phrygia;  umbra  is  the  Latin  word  for  shade,  and  an  umbrella  is 
therefore  a  little  shade;  a  parasol  —  from  the  Greek  para,  against,  and  the 
Latin  sol,  sun*  —  is  something  held  against  the  sun  ;  a  mansion  —  from  the 
Latin  maneo,  mansnm,  to  remain  —  is  a  place  to  remain  in  ;  the  first  clock 
seemed  to  cluck,  like  a  hen ;  and  a  flea  is  probably  so  called  from  the  ra- 
pidity with  which  he  flees^  or  tries  to  escape. 

///  is  contracted  from  evil,  and  ail  is  akin  to  it;  dawn,  from  day-en  {day- 
ing),  making  day ;  deed,  from  do-ed,  done,  what  is  done ;  first,  from  fore- 
est,  fur'st ;  last,  from  latest ;  lass,  from  laddess ;  alone,  from  all  one ;  only, 
from  onelike;  flood,  from  flowed;  fulsome,  from  foul-some;  parboil,  from 
pud-boil ;  Naples  from  nca  polls,  new  city  ;  oflal  is  what  falls  off,  or  is  cast 
away  ;  and  what  I  dofl^,  I  do  off. 

King  Henry  the  Eighth,  of  England,  became  "  the  chiefe  amhour  "  of 
♦  Peahaps  rather  from  the  luliao  iJarare,  to  ward  oO;  and  sole,  sun. 


68  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

«n  English  grammar,  for  "  the  childrene  of  his  lovynge  subjects/'  which 
he  compelled  the  people  to  use ;  and  thus  originated  the  common  phrase, 
the  King's  English.  The  Irishman  may  claim  that  his  nickname  has  de- 
scended from  "  the  senators  of  Rome,  in  Rome's  best  day."  Thus,  pater, 
patreSf  patricians,  Patricius,  Patrick,  Paddy,  Pat. 

Many  words,  applied  lirst  to  material  things,  have  been  extended  to 
things  intellectual  or  abstract.  "  The  spirit  in  its  literal  import  is  breath 
or  wind,  rectitude  is  straightness,  error  is  a  wandering,  transgression  is  a  going- 
over,  education  is  a  drawing-out,  a  language  is  a  tongue ; "  and  we  speak  of 
**  bright  hopes,  unshaken  confidence,  and  corroding  cares." 

The  two  principles  which  guide  us  most  in  the  use  and  formation  of 
words,  are  resemblance  and  relation.  The  leaf  of  a  book  resembles  the  leaf 
of  a  plant ;  and  the  hey  to  an  arithmetic  serves  to  unlock  its  mysteries. 
Buzz,  hiss,  hum,  roll,  roar,  rattle,  clatter,  click,  clang,  thin,  burly,  are  all  imita- 
tive. Some  letter  combinations  are  en)inently  suggestive  of  the  meaning. 
There  is  something  decidedly  nasal  in  the  sn  that  begins  sneeze,  sneer,  snout, 
snore,  snort,  snuff,  snuffle,  and  snicker.  Spr  or  sp  implies  expansion  or  un- 
folding; as  in  spread,  sprawl,  sprinkle,  sprout,  and  spring.  JSt  implies  firm- 
aess ;  as  in  stout,  stand,  stool,  stump,  stay,  stiff,  strut,  strong,  and  slack.  A 
sceptre  indicates  royalty  ;  a  sword,  a  soldier,  or  war ;  a  sad,  a  ship ;  and  a 
bead,  the  ox  that  wears  it. 

There  are  many  beautiful  analogies  in  derivation,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  specimens  :  — 

Crack,  cracWe ;  crumb,  cn/m6/e ;  curd,  curc?/e ;  {on(\,  fondle;  game,  gam* 
lie;  grim  or  gram,  grumble;  nest,  nestle;  rank,  rankle;  roam,  ramble; 
rough,  ruffle;  set,  settle;  sho\c,  shovel,  shiiffe ;  spark,  sparkle;  stray,  strag- 
f/le ;  sti-ide,  straddle  ;  throat,  throttle  ;  wade,  waddle  ;  wink,  twinkle  ;  writhe, 
wriggle. 

'Bind,  bundle ;  gird, girdle;  hand, handle;  lade,  ladle;  seat,  saddle;  shoot, 
shuttle ;  spin,  spindle  ;  steep,  steeple ;  thumb,  thimble. 

Beat,  batter;  spit,  sputter,  spatter;  pest,  pester;  blow,  bluster;  climb, 
clamber;  gleam,  glimmer ;  shine,  shimmer;  gloss,  glisten ;  wendy  wander ; 
long,  linger;   hang,  hanker;   whine,  whimper. 

(The  foregoing  examples  show  that  a  derivative  word  is  sometimes  a 
diminutive,  a  frequentative,  or  an  augmentative  of  .its  primitive;  that  is,  it 
may  imply  a  lessening,  a  frequency,  or  an  increase,  in  regard  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  primitive.  And  then,  generally  speaking,  the  stronger  the 
sound,  the  stronger  the  meaning.) 

3 dined,  joint ;  ieigned,  feint ;  \faned,  want ;  weighed,  weight ;  cleaved, 
cleft;  thieved,  theft;  drivcd,  drift;  gived,  gift;  waved,  wajl ;  deserved,  de- 
sert;  haved,  haft;  held,  hilt;  skim,  scum;  deem,  doom. 

Healoih,  health;  stealeih,  steallh ;  grow clh,  growth ;  hicweth,  broth;  gird- 


ETYMOLOGY.  69 

eth,  girth;  smiteth,  smith.  ("  The  smith  that  smitcth  at  the  fire."—  Vcrste- 
gan.) 

Deep,  depth  ;  long,  length  ;  strong,  strength ;  young,  youth ;  raciry,  mirth  ; 
■wide,  width  ;  slow,  sloth.  * 

Bake,  batch;  wake,  watch;  make,  match;  break,  breach;  speak,  speech; 
Bcak,  beseech  ;  at'ick,  stitch ;  nkk,  niche,  notch  ;  drink,  drench ;  crook,  crouch  ; 
stark,  starch. 

There  is  often  a  shortening  in  spelling  or  pronunciation  :  — 

Grain,  granan/ ;  cave,  cavity;  main/am,  maintenance,  please,  pleasant; 
zeal,  zSalous;  sheep,  shepherd;  feci,  fetlock ;  \nn(\,  hinder ;  spleen,  splen- 
etic; prime,  primer;  crime,  ciiminal ;  goose,  gdsUng ;  sour,  surli/ ;  boor, 
bur/ij  ;   south,  soulhern. 

The  changes  which  words  undergo,  are  such  as  tend  to  produce  greater 
musical  variety.  There  is  ever  a  tendency,  too,  in  derivation,  to  hold  to 
some  fundamental  parts  or  analogies.  Hence  the  Saxon  prefix  ge  has  in 
some  of  our  words  run  into  a,  as  in  arise  and  awake;  and  the  Saxon  If- 
Iddu,  life-leading,  has  become  livdihood.  People  arc  thus  sometimes  mis- 
led. Asparagus  is  often  improperly  called  spnrrow-grass ;  and  wo  often 
hear  the  improper  forms  preventative,  viaintai nance,  proposial,  and  moun- 
tain'cous,  for  the  words  prerentire,  maintenance,  proposal,  and  nioun'tainous. 

Language  not  only  exists,  but  lives,  grows,  and  decays.  It  is  not  a 
dead  mechanism,  but  a  living  organism.  Words,  and  modes  of  ex- 
pression, arc  constantly  coming  into  use  ;  others,  passing  out  of  use;  and 
olhers,  assuming  new  burdens  of  meaning,  and  probably  losing  the  old. 
An  old  writer  speaks  of  a  "polite  surface"  (polished  surface),  and  of  ''re- 
senting a  favor"  (re-/iclii>g  it,  or  reflecting  upon  it  with  gratitude).  Our 
expressive  "words  bulk,  dose,  opiate,  jionderous,  caress,  thrill,  grishj,  tissue, 
and  plumage,  %verc  all  denounced,  at  different  times,  cither  as  being  new- 
fangled or  as  being  obsolete. 

"Words  become  respectable  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  use  made  of 
them  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  they  nearly  always  pass  from  good  mean- 
ings to  bad  ones,  and  very  seldom  the  other  way.  The  word  knave  onco 
denoted  simply  a  lad  ;  but  as  lads  frequently  became  pages,  attendants, 
or  servants  to  persons  of  consequence,  the  word  was  gradually  applied  to 
attendants  or  servants;  and  as  these  were  sometimes  dishonest  or  not 
deemed  respectable,  the  word  gradually  acquired  its  present  meaning. 
The  good,  substantial  gentlewomen  of  the  olden  times  have  been  superseded 
by  those  who  are  all  flattered,  by  the  gentlemen,  into  ladies  (wives  or 
daughters  of  lords)  ;  and  yet  even  this  word  will  poon  cease  to  be  respect- 
able if  it  should  be  frequently  applied  as  in  the  following  instance: 
"  Stolen  by  a  lady,  from  a  little  girl,  a  cashmere  shawl,"  etc.,  etc.  —  News- 
paper Advertisement. 


PART  III. 


"WORDS    G-R-A.M:M^^TIC^JL.LY    COnV£J3IN"E33. 


PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

157.  A  Part  of  Speech  is  a  class  of  Avords,  made 
according  to  their  use  and  meaning  in  sentences. 

By  PA'neciloche,  the  term  purl  of  speech  is  often  applied  to  a  single  word. 

158.  The  Eno-hsh  lano;uao;e  has  nine  Parts  of  Speech  ; 
JVbuns,  Pronomis,  Articles^  Adjectives^  Verbs,  Adverbs^ 
Prepositions^  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

The  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  arc  the  chief  classes ;  and  next  to 
them  rank  the  adjectives  and  the  adverbs.  These  five  classes  have, 
to  some  extent,  -what  arc  called  injleciions ;  that  is,  they  are  some- 
times changed  in  form  to  express  a  modification  in  the  idea. 


I  Common 


NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS.* 

ClasGiQcatiou. 

'  Masculine, 
Feminine, 
Common, 
Neuter. 


irxclucliixg 

Collective, 

Abstract, 

Verbal. 


[Personal, 
Pro-   ]  Relative, 
nouns.!  Interrogative, 
[Adjective. 


Properties. 

I  Plural. 

{Nominative, 
Possessive, 
Objective. 

Nouns  and  Pronouns  are  sometimes  called  Sub'stanticet. 


Gender. 


Persox. 


First, 

Second, 

Third. 


NOUNS  AND  PBONOUNS.  ,71 

NOUNS. 

159.   A  IToun  is  a  name. 
Ex.  —  Martha,  Columbus,  river,  -wind,  farm,  farmer. 

1G0«    Sometimes  a  phrase  is  used  as  a  noun. 
Ex.  —  New  York;  Sir  Walter  Scott;  Henry  the  Eighth;  Duko 
of  Marlboiough.     "  Toward  the  earth's  centre  is>  down." 

161*    Sometimes  a  clause  is  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex.  — "  That  the  tear  must  soon  end,  is  plain."  (What  is  plain  ?) 
"  I  will  sec  whether  the  fire  is  burning."  (See  what  ?)  "  It  is  certain 
iliat  he  will  (jo"     (What  is  certain  ?) 

162.  Sometimes  a  word  from  another  part  of  speech, 
or  a  mere  sijxn,  is  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex.  —  "  The  proudest  she  in  Christendom."  —  Shalcespeare.  "Tho 
wJiy  is  plain  as  way  to  parish  church."  — Jd.  "  The  signs  -j->  — >  X> 
and  -7-."  —  llolinson. 

CLASSES    OF    NOUNS. 

1G3.  Nouns  arc  divided  into  two  classes,  — proper  and 
commo7i ;  and  tlio  common  nouns  include,  as  a  part  of 
their  number,  collective  nouns,  abstract  nouns,  and  verbal 
nouns. 

164.  A  pA'oper  IToua  is  a  name  that  distinguishes  a 
particular  one  from  the  rest  of  a  class. 

Ex.  —  Mary,  Henry,  Boston,  Connecticut;  the  Iliad. 

Mary  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  a  name  that  distinguishes  a 
particular  girl  or  woman  from  others. 

105.  When  a  proper  noun  assumes  meaning,  or  implies 
other  objects  that  have  the  same  name,  it  becomes  a  com- 
mon noun. 

Ex.  —  "  Bolivar  was  the  Washington  of  South  America."  (Great 
general  and  patriot.)     "  Some  mute,  inglorious  MUton  here  may 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

rest."    (Great  poet)     " I  saw  the  Russians,  and  also  a  Turk  and 
several  Persians,  at  the  Aster  House." 

Plural  nouns  that  begin  with  capital  letters,  and  distinguish 
groups  as  singular  proper  nouns  distinguish  indiTiduals,  should  be 
considered  proper  nouns.  Hence  "  the  Azores,"  "  the  Cherokees," 
"  the  Messrs.  Harris,"  denoting  each  the  whole  of  a  group,  are 
proper  nouns. 

16S»  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  common  to  all  of 
the  same  kind  or  class. 

Ex.  —  Girl,  boy,  city,  river,  mountain,  man,  horse. 

Girl  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  a  name  that  is  common,  or 
can  be  applied,  to  any  one  of  a  certain  class  of  females. 

167.  When  a  common  noun  denotes  an  object  in  the 
sense  of  a  proper  noun,  it  becomes  a  proper  noun. 

Ex.  —  The  Common  ;  Niagara  Falls.    "  Come,  gentle  Spring" 
Sometimes  there  is  no  class,  or  but  one  object  to  be  denoted  by  a 
proper  noun  or  a  common  noun.     "When  this  is  the  case,  the  proper 
noun  simply  denotes  the  object;  as,  God:  while  the  common  noun 
denotes  the  object,  and  also  shows  what  it  is ;  as,  earlli,  sky,  truth. 

168.  A  Collective  Noun  is  a  name  that  denotes,  in 
the  singular  form,  more  than  one  object  of  the  same  kind. 

Ex.  —  Family,  army,  swarm,  class,  congregation. 

169.  An  Abstract  Noim  is  the  name  of  a  quality^  a 
state,  or  an  action. 

Abstract  means  drawn  from.  The  words  goodness,  virtue,  liope, 
wisdom,  motion,  rest,  peace,  and  industry,  are  abstract  nouns ;  because 
they  are  not  the  names  of  objects  that  exist  by  themselves,  but  the 
names  of  qualities,  actions,  or  states,  belonging  to  objects,  or  of 
notions  that  we  form  in  regard  to  them. 

no.  A  Verbal  Noun  is  a  participle  or  an  infinitive 
used  as  a  noun.     Verbal  nouns  belong  to  abstract  nouns. 

Ex.  —  "  To  climb  is  generally  difficult."  "  The  boy  hurt  himself 
by  climbing  a  tree."  (The  teacher  should  give  the  pupil  some  idea 
of  what  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  is.) 

A  participle,  used  as  a  noun,  is  sometimes  called  a  participial  noun. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  73 

.1  noun,  and  why ;  whetlier  proper,  common,  or  collective,  and  why :  — 
Boy,  George,  day,  Saturday,  month,  September,  flock,  tribe, 
holiday,  Christmas,  island,  Cuba,  nations,  city,  Boston,  people, 
multitude,  river,  Hudson,  party,  Azores,  ashes, 

PRONOUNS. 

171.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 
Ex.  —  "  The  father  and  his  son  cultivated  the  farm  wTiicJi  \  they^ 

had  purchased"  \  i.  e.,  The  father  and  the  father's  son  cultivated  the 
farm  which  farm  |  the  father  and  the  father's  son  had  purchased. 

172.  Pronouns  enable  us  to  avoid  clumsy  expressions, 
and  especially  the  disagreeable  repetition  of  nouns. 

173.  The  ^TOrd,  phrase,  or  clause,  which  a  pronoun 
represents,  is  called  its  antecedent 

Ex.  —  *'  James  saw  his  mistake."  James  is  the  antecedent  of  his* 
"  lie  who  is  well,  undervakies  health."  He  is  the  antecedent  of  wh(K 
*'  I  wished  ta  call  him  hack ;  but  it  was  impossible,"  "  He  sold  his 
farm ;  and  now  he  regrets  it."  Sometimes  the  antecedent  follows 
the  pronoun  ;  as,  "  And  there  her  brood  the  partridge  led."  —  BryanL 

174.  When  a  pronoun  has  a  modified  antecedent,  it 
represents  it  with  all  its  modifications. 

Ex.  —  "  The  largest  tree  of  the  grove  spread  its  shade  over  us." 
Here  its  represents  not  tree  merely,  but  the  largest  tree  of  the  grove. 

175.  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted. 
Ex. — "There  are,  who,  deaf  to  mad  Ambition's  call, 

Would  shrink  to  hear  the  obstreperous  trump  of  fame."  — 
Supply  those^  or  those  persons^  after  are.  \_Beattie. 

176.  The  pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted. 
Ex.  —  "  The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day, 

Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play  ?"  —  Pope. 
Supply  which  after  lamb. 

CLASSES    OF    PRONOUNS. 

177.  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes ;  per^ 
sonaly  relative.,  interrogative^  and  adjective^ 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

Personal  Pronouns. 

178.  A  Personal  Pronoun  is  one  of  those  pronouns 
"which  distinguish  the  grammatical  persons. 

Ex.  —  " /  saw  you  and  him."  I  means  the  speaker ;  you^  the  per- 
son spoken  to ;  and  himj  the  person  spoken  of. 

119.  The  chief  personal  pronouns  are  /,  thou  or  t/ou, 
he,  she,  and  it. 

For  their  declined  forms  and  their  compounds,  see  p.  103. 

180.  You,  your,  yours,  and  yourself,  are  now  pre- 
ferred in  common  usage  to  thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  etc. 

181.  Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  thyself,  and  ye,  are  ancient 
ahd  solemn  forms.     Hence  they  are  still  u^ed,  — 

1.  In  the  Bible. 

Ex.  —  "  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor." 
2*  In  prayers  or  other  addresses  to  the  Deity. 
Ex.  —  "  Thou  Almighty  Ruler,  hallowed  be  thy  name  1 "  —  Prayer. 
3.  Frequently,  in  poetry. 
Ex.  —  •'  Thou  art  not  false,  but  tliou  art  fickle." — Byron. 

182.  Ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs,  and  generally  mine  and 
thine,  are  respectively  equivalent  to  our,  your,  her,  etc., 
and  the  name  of  the  object  possessed.  These  two  words 
should  be  parsed  in  stead  of  the  other  word. 

Ex.  —  "He  ate  his  apple,  you  ate  yours  [your  apple'},  and  I  ate 
mine"  [my  apple}.  Yours  is  not  jroverned  by  a  noun  understood,  for 
the  noun  could  not  be  put  after  it ;  but  it  is  equivalent  to  your  and  a 
noun. — See  p.  103. 

183.  Before  vowel  sounds  or  the  letter  h,  mine  and 
thine  are  sometimes  preferred,  in  the  solemn  or  poetic 
style,  to  my  and  thy. 

Ex.  —  "  All  mine  iniquities."  —  Bible.     "  Thine  altar."  —  Whittier. 

*'  Time  writes  no  wrinkles  on  thine  azure  brow." —  Byron. 
Bo,  formerly,  none  to  no.    •'  Thou  shalt  have  none  other  gods  before  me."  —  Bible, 


^c' 


NOUNS  AND  PKONOUNS.  75 

184t  It  sometimes  denotes  merely  the  state  or  condi- 
tion of  things,  or  a  point  of  time. 

Ex.  —  It  rains.     It  thunders.     7fis  12  o'clock. 

"  '7'  was  moonlight  oa  the  Persian  Sea."  —  Moore. 
185t    It  sometimes  introduces  a  sentence,  and  is  ex- 
plained by  a  following  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

Ex.  —  It  is  he.  It  is  she.  It  was  they.  It  is  mean  to  take  adcan- 
age  of  another's  distress.  It  is  periectly  plain  that  a  straight  line  must 
he  the  shoricst  distance  between  two  points. 

It,  in  all  the  foregoing  examples,  has  no  antecedent 

188.   A  Ccmpouncl  Personal  Pronoun  is  a  word 

consisting,  in  the  singular  number,  of  mi/,  thy,  your, 
him,  her,  or  it,  compounded  with  telf ;  in  the  plural,  of 
our,  your,  or  them,  compounded  with  selves. 

Ex. — Myself,  yourself,  himself;  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves. 

187.  These  pronouns  are  used  in  two  senses  :  — 

1.  For  emphatic  distinction. 

Ex.  —  "  He  himself  said  so  " ;  i.  c,  no  other  person  said  so. 

2.  In  a  reflexive  sense. 

Ex.  —  "  He  hurt  himself"  *'  Said  I  to  myself  I  am  myself  a^ain." 
That  is,  the  act  or  state  of  the  person  terminates  upon  himself. 

Eelative  Pronouns. 

188.  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  gener- 
ally stands  in  close  relation  to  an  antecedent,  and  joins 
to  it  a  descriptive  clause. 

Ex.  —  "  The  fur  tchich  warms  the  monarch,  warmed  a  hear." 
"  Too  low  they  build,  who  build  beneath  the  stars." —  Young. 
"  Spirit  thai  breathest  through  my  lattice."  —  Bryant. 

Which  means  the  fur  ;  and  which  warms  the  monarch  tells  what  fur. 

Who  relates  to  they  ;  and  its  clause  describes  the  persons  meant  by  thry. 

189.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  tchich,  what,  that^ 
and  as,  with  their  declined  forms  and  their  compounds* 


76  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

190#  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  to  other  objects 
when  regarded  as  persons. 

Ex.  —  "  The  man  who  feels  truly  noble,  will  become  so."  —  Chapin. 

"  Now  a  faint  tick  was  beard  below,  from  the  Pendulum^  who 
thus  spoke."  —  Jane  Taylor. 

W.   "  The  son  of  Esrom,  which  was  the  son  of  Setb." —  Bible. 

101.  "Whicli  is  applied  to  things,  and  to  all  animals 
inferior  to  man. 

Ex.  —  The  rose  which;  the  horse  which ;  the  arm7j  which. 

W.    The  lion  who  bad  killed  the  man,  was  shot  the  next  day. 

A  group  of  persons  regarded  as  one  whole,  and  denoted  by  a  col- 
lective noun,  becomes  a  thing,  and  who  should  not  be  applied  to  it ; 
as, "  He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  which  [not  who^  surrounded  him." 

192.  What  is  used  in  place  of  ihinr/  which  or  things 
which,  and  it  has  therefore  no  antecedent. 

Ex.  —  "I  will  take  tchat  [the  things  which"]  you  send." 

193.  That  is  preferred  to  who  and  which  in  the  fol- 
lowing instances  :  — 

1.  When  the  antecedent  denotes  both,  persons  and 
other  objects. 

Ex.  -—  The  ship  and  passengers  that  were  lost  at  sea. 
"W.    Was  it  the  wind,  or  you,  who  shut  the  door  ? 

2.  Generally  when  a  more  specific  or  restrictive  rela- 
tive than  who  or  which  is  needed. 

Ex. — "In  thoughts  that  breathe,  and  words  that  burn." —  Gray. 
"  Riches  V^af  are  ill  got,  are  sehiom  enjoyed." — Johnson.    That  is, 
not  all  riches,  but  only  those  which  are  ill  got. 

W.   Adjectives  which  express  number  are  called  numerals. 

3.  After  the  superlative  degree,  when  the  sense  is  re- 
strictive. 

'     Ex.  -^  This  is  the  hardest  lesson  that  we  have  yet  had. 
W.  I  was  the  first  one  who  came  to  school  this  morning. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS,  TT 

4.  After  wJio^  used  as  an  antecedent, 
Ex.  —  "Who  that  respects  himself,  would  tell  a  lie  ? 

5.  After  same, 

Ex.  —  It  is  tlie  same  star  that  we  saw  last  night. 

W.   These  are  the  same  sums  which  we  had  yesterday. 

6.  Generally,  after  no,  all^  any^  each^  every^  some,  or 
very, 

Ex.  —  "  And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth,  e'er  gave." —  Gray>, 
W.   No  man  who  knows  him,  would  trust  him. 

7.  Frequently,  after  personal  pronouns,  or  after  predi- 
cate-nominatives referring  to  iU 

Ex.  —  "  Fall  he  that  must."  —  Pope.  But,  "  His  praise  is  lost  who 
waits  till  all  commend."  — Id.     "  It  is  not  grief  that  bids  me  moan." 

8.  Generally,  where  who  or  which  would  seem  less 
proper. 

Ex.  —  "  A  little  child  that  lightly  draws  its  hvesith.'^  -^Wordsworth. 
"  A  woman  who  had  a  daughter  that  was  very  beautiful."  "  A 
woman  that  had  a  daughter  who  was  very  beautiful." 

194.  The  relative  that  does  not  allow  a  preposition  to  stand 
immediately  before  it ;  and  hence  who7n  or  which  must  be  used 
after  a  preposition,  or  the  arrangement  of  the  words  must  be 
varied. 

Ex.  —  "He  is  the  same  man  with  whom  I  came";  or,  <'  He  is  the 
same  man  that  I  came  with." 

105»  Which  and  that  have  no  possessive  form  of  their  own ; 
and  hence  they  sometimes  borrow  whose,  the  possessive  of  ivho, 

Ex.  —  "  The  undiscovered  country.,  from  whose  bourn  [from  the 
boundary  ofwhich'\  no  traveler  returns."  —  Shakespeare. 

196.    As  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  it  follows  such^ 
many,  or  same,  and  relates  to  the  objects  thus  specified. 
Ex.  — He  has  such  friends  as  every  one  should  wish  to  have. 
As  is  also  generally  a  relative  pronoun  after  as  much.  ' 


78  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

197.  A  Compound  Relative  Pronoun  is  who^  which^ 
or  wliat^  with  ever  or  soever  annexed  to  it. 

Ex.  —  I  will  take  whatever  you  send. 

A  compound  relative  pronoun  is  generally  a  little  more  em- 
phatic or  comprehensive  than  the  simple  one ;  and  it  dispenses 
with  the  antecedent  when  this  is  indefinite. 

The  indefinite  ever  or  soever  partly  represents  the  antecedent,  by 
being  a  sort  of  substitute  for  the  indefinite  adjective  before  it ;  and 
hence,  when  the  antecedent  is  expressed  or  supplied,  the  ever  or  so- 
ever must  generally  be  omitted. 

Ex.  —  "  Whoever  \1ie  who']  cares  not  for  others,  should  not  expect 
their  favors."  —  "  The  Gaul  offered  his  own  head  tp  whoever  [any  peV' 
son  who"]  would  bring  him  that  of  Nero."  —  Gibbon. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

198.  An  Inten'ogative  Pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used 
to  ask  a  question. 

Ex.  —  Who  came  with  you  ?     Which  is  he  ? 

Interrogative  pronouns  have  no  antecedents;  but  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  is  given  in  answer  to  the  interrogative  pronoun,  is 
sometimes  called  the  subsequent ;  as,  "  Who  came  with  you  ?  —  JohnP 

*' An  interrogative  proooun  is  a  relative  in  search  of  an  antecedent."  —  Phil,  Museum. 

199.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
what,  with  their  declined  forms. 

All  these  pronouns  can  be  applied  to  either  persons  or  things, 
except  who,  which  is  applicable  to  persons  only. 

200.  Who  inquires  for  the  name  of  a  person;  but, 
when  the  name  is  given,  for  some  description. 

Ex.  —  "  Who  is  he  V  "  —  Wirt.     "  Who  was  Blennerhasset  ?  "  —  Id. 

201.  "Which  generally  supposes  the  name  known  ;  and 
it  is  applied  to  persons  or  things,  in  asking  for  a  particular 
one  of  two  or  more. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  t9 

Ex.  —  "  WJiicJi  is  Shylock  ?  "  —  ShaJcespeare.     "  Which  is  j-ours  ?  ** 
In  this  sense,  tvhether  was  fornjerly  used  in  asking  for  one  of  two;  as, 

"  Whether  of  tlio  twain  ?  "  —  Spenser.     "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the 

temple  1  "  —  Bible. 

2®2.  "What  asks  for  the  kind  of  thing;  and  hence, 
sometimes,  for  the  character  or  occupation. 

Ex.  —  "  What  can  ennoble  sots,  or  slaves,  or  cowards  ? 

Alas !  not  all  the  blood  of  all  the  Howards."  —  Pope. 
«  What  art  thou  ?  "  —  Milton.     "  What  is  he  ?  " 

203.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  in  a  re- 
sponsive sense ;  and  it  may  then  be  called  a  responsive  pro- 
noun.,  or  an  indirect  interrogative  pronoun. 

"  Who  is  he  ?  —  I  know  not  who  he  is." 

"  Which  is  it  ?  —  I  can  not  tell  which  it  is." 

«  What  is  truth  ?  "     "  Tell  me  what  truth  is."  —  See  p.  222. 

Observe  the  difference:  *^''Who  went?"  {What  person.)  Inter- 
rogative pronoun.  "  I  do  not  know  who  went."  ( What  person.) 
Eesponsive  pronoun.  "  I  do  not  know  the  person  who  went."  Rela- 
tive pronoun. 

Adjective   Pronouns. 

204.  An  Adjective  Pronoun  is  a  common  specify- 
ing adjective  used  as  a  pronoun. 

Common  specifying  adjectives  are  such  as  this,  that,  each,  any,  some,  suck,  all,  etc. 
Ex.  —  "  The  new  ones  [^edijices']  are  larger."  —  Addison. 
"  Such  men  as  one  [a  person"}  sometimes  meets  with." —  Taylor. 
**  By  others'  faults,  wise  men  correct  their  own."  —  Proverb. 
"Where  cither's  fall  determines  both  their  fates." —  Goldsmith. 
"It  was  the  latter,  not  the /ormer,  that  was  in  danger."  —  Benton. 
"  The  age  of  chivalry  is  gone ;  that  [the  age']  of,"  etc.  —  Durle. 
"  Virtue  and  vice  are  before  you  ;  ihh  leads  to  misery,  that  to  peace."        , 
*  Some  put  the  bliss  in  action,  some  in  case':  i 

Those  call  it  pleasure;  and  contentment,  these.'*  —  Pope. 
"  They  deemed  each  other  oracles  of  law."  —  Pope. 
"  Husbands  and  wives  are  continually  complaining  of  each  other.** — 
"  Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens."  —  Bible.  [Johnson. 

Adjective  pronouns  frequently  have  no  antecedents. 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

205.  Adjective  pronouns  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes ;  distrib'utive,  demon! strative,  indefinite^  and  recip' 
roeal, 

206.  The  distributive  pronouns  are  eacTi^  either^  and 
neither.     They  relate  to  objects  taken  singly. 

Every ^  used  as  a  pronoun,  is  nearly  obsolete. 

207.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  tliis^  these^  tJiatj 
those.,  same^  former,  and  latter.  They  point  out  objects 
definitely. 

208.  The  indefinite  pronouns  are  one,  ones,  other,  others, 
any,  some,  such,  all,  both,  and  none.  They  relate  to  ob- 
jects indefinitely. 

A  few  other  adjectives  may  occasionally  be  called  indefinite  pronouns. 
2C9.    The  reciprocal  pronouns  are  each  other  and  one 
another.     They  imply  a  reciprocal  action  or  relation. 

Each  other  and  one  another  can  generally  be  parsed  in  a  different  way.  —  See  p.  100. 

210.  Either,  neither,  and  each  other,  should  be  used  in 
speaking  of  two  only ;  one  another,  in  speaking  of  more. 

For  correct  examples,  see  the  preceding  page. 
\y«     Either  of  the  eight  Professors.     (Any  one.) 

The  two  Smiths  are  not  related  to  one  another. 

Pupils  should  be  polite  to  each  other.  —  N.  Webster. 

211.  When  this  and  thai  are  used  in  speaking  of  two, 
that  should  be  applied  to  the  more  distant,  the  first-men- 
tioned, or  the  absent ;  this,  to  the  nearer,  the  last-men- 
tioned, or  the  present. 

Tliepronouns,  and  why ;  personal,  relative,  interrogative,  or  axfjectlve,  andwhy:'^ 
I  will  go  with  you  and  him  to  see  them. 
It  was  the  owner  himself  who  killed  the  dog  which  bit  us. 
Who  knows  who  he  is  ?     Some  are  lazy,  and  others  stupid. 
"  Why  is  my  sleep  disquieted  ? 
Who  is  he  that  calls  the  dead  ?  "  —  Byron. 

Thai  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  who,  whom,  or  which  can  be  put  in  its  place, 
■without  destroying  the  sense. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  81 

PROPERTIES   OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

212.  Nouns  and  Pronouns  have  gender^  person^  num^ 
her^  and  case. 

213.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  in 
gender,  person,  and  number, 

Ex.  —  "  John  met  his  mother."  His  is  of  the  same  gender,  per- 
son, and  number  as  John. 

W.    Every  one  should  attend  to  their  own  business. 

GENDER. 

211.  Gender  is  that  property  of  nouns  ana  pronouns 
which  distinguishes  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

215.  There  are  four  genders;  the  masculine,  \hQ  femi- 
nine^ the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

216.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  masculine  gender^ 
when  it  denotes  a  male.     Boy. 

217.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  \\iq  feminine  gender,  when 
it  denotes  a  female.      Girl. 

218.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  common  gender,  when 
it  denotes  either  a  male  or  a  female.     Child. 

219.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  neuter  gender,  when 
it  denotes  neither  a  male  nor  a  female.     Book. 

The  sex  of  an  object  denoted  by  a  word  of  the  common  gender 
sometimes  becomes  more  definitely  known  from  some  other  word, 
and  the  words  should  then  be  parsed  accordingly ;  as,  "  The  child 
and  his  mother  were  in  good  health."  Here  child  is  masculine,  as 
shown  by  his. 

220.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  nouns  that  are  strictly 
masculine  or  feminine  only,  are  sometimes  applied  to  both 
sexes.     The  masculine  term  is  generally  preferred. 

Ex.  —  "//or.sc.9   are  fond  of  green   pastures";    i.  e.,  horses,  and 
mares  too.     "  The  Jews  are  scattered  over  the  whole  world." 
"  We  saw  geese  and  ducks."    "  Tie  poets  of  England." 

4*  y 


82  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

But  in  connection  with  a  proper  noun,  only  the  appropriate  term 
•will  harmonize  in  sense ;  as,  "  The  poet  Ilomer."  "  The  poetess 
Sappho." 

221.  On  the  same  principle,  the  masculine  pronoun  is 
sometimes  preferred  to  the  feminine,  or  used  for  both. 

Ex. —  Every  person  should  try  to  improve  Jiis  mind. 
\y.     "  Almost  everybody  has  their  faults."  —  Chapin. 

222.  Sometimes  animals  ai'e  regarded  as  male  or  female, 
not  from  their  sex,  but  from  their  general  character. 

Ex.  —  "  The  lion  meets  Ids  foe  boldly."  —  Addison. 
"Every  ant  minds  her  own  business."  —  Id. 

On  the  same  principle,  sex  is  sometimes  disrepfarded  when  the 
creature  is  small,  unimportant,  or  imperfectly  known  ;  as,  "  The 
cliild  has  scorched  its  frock."  *'  The  mouse  ran  back  when  it  saw  me." 
In  such  cases  it  would  probably  be  best  to  parse  both  the  noun  and 
the  pronoun  as  being  of  the  common  gender. 

223.  Things  without  life  are  sometimes  regarded  as  persons, 
and  have  ihcn  a  suitable  sex  ascribed  to  them.  Nouns  thus 
used  are  said  to  be  masculine  or  feminine  by  personification. 

224t  The  masculine  gender  is  preferred,  if  the  object 
is  noted  for  size,  power,  or  domineering  qualities. 

Ex.  —  "  Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears ! "  —  Rogers. 
"  The  sun  seemed  shorn  of  his  beams."  —  Mi/ton. 

225t  The  feminine  gender  is  preferred,  if  the  object  is 
noted  for  beauty,  amiability,  productiveness,  or  submis- 
sive qualities. 

Ex.  —  "  Soon  Peace  shall  come  with  all  her  smiling  train.'* 
"Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God." 
"  The  ship,  with  her  snowy  sails  and  flaunting  banner." 

226.  When  a  collective  noun  is  used  in  the  plural 
number,  or  when  it  denotes  the  wdiole  collection  as  one 
thing,  it  is  of  the  neuter  gender ;  when  it  is  used  other- 
wise, its  gender  corresponds  with  the  sex  of  the  individu- 
als composing  the  collection. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


ia 


Ex.  —  *^S\x  families  settled  on  tliis  river."  "Every  generation 
has  ils  peculiarities."  "  The  congregation  will  please  to  retain  their 
scats." 

Personal  pronouns  of  the  first  or  the  second  person  are  of 
the  common  gendei-,  unless  the  sex  becomes  more  delinitely 
known  from  some  other  word. 


How  Gonder  is  Espressed. 
227.   There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the 
two  sexes. 

1.  By  different  words. 


Masculine. 

Feminine, 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Bachelor, 

maid. 

Man, 

woman. 

Beau, 

helle. 

Master, 

mistress. 

Boy, 

girl. 

Master, 

miss. 

Bridegroom 

,  bride. 

Mr., 

Mrs. 

Brother, 

sister. 

Monk,  friar. 

nun. 

Buck, 

doe. 

Monsieur, 

madame. 

Bull, 

cow. 

Monsieur, 

mademoiselle. 

Bullock, 

heifer. 

Kephcw, 

niece. 

Colt, 

filly. 

Papa, 

mamma. 

Drake, 

duck. 

Ram,  buck. 

ewe. 

Earl, 

countess. 

Rooster, 

hen. 

Father, 

mother. 

Sir, 

madam. 

Gander, 

goose. 

Sire  (horse) 

,  dam. 

Gentleman, 

lady. 

Sloven, 

slattern. 

Hart, 

roc. 

Son, 

daughter. 

He, 

she. 

Stag, 

hind. 

Horse, 

marc. 

Steer, 

heifer. 

Hushand, 

wife. 

Swain, 

nymph. 

King, 

queen. 

Uncle, 

aunt. 

Lad, 

lass. 

Wizard, 

witch. 

Lord, 

lady. 

Youth, 

maiden,  damsel. 

Male, 

female. 

Charles, 

Caroline. 

H 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


2.   By  different  endings. 

Most  nouns  of  this  class  denote  rank  or  occupation ; 
and  the  feminine  generally  ends  with  ess  or  trix, 

Ex.  —  Abbot,  abbess  ;  governor,  governess. 

Add  ESS :  Baron,  count,  viscount,  dauphin,  deacon,  diviner, 
giant,  god  (see  p.  50),  heir,  hermit,  host,  Jew,  lion,  mayor, 
patron,  peer,  poet,  priest,  prince  (sefe  p.  51),  prior,  prophet, 
shepherd,  tailor,  author. 

Change  rer  into  ress  :  Adulterer,  adventurer,  caterer,  mur- 
derer, sorcerer. 

Change  ter  or  tor  into  tress,  and  der  into  dress  ; 
Actor,  arbiter,  benefactor,  chanter,  enchanter,  conductor,  em- 
bassador, elector,  founder,  huckster,  hunter,  idolater,  inventor, 
instructor.  Mister,  painter,  porter,  protector,  proprietor,  team- 
ster, songster,  traitor,  victor,  waiter,  auditor,  editor,  orator. 

Change  tor  into  trix  :  Administrator,  exec'utor,  testator. 

Change  tor  into  tress  or  trix  :  Director,  mediator,  spec- 
tator. 

Words  not  so  Regular. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Emperor, 

empress, 

Tiger, 

tigress. 

Negro, 

negrcss. 

Votary, 

votaress. 

Duke, 

duchess. 

Marquis, 

marchioness. 

Anchoret, 
Anchorite, 

>•  anchoress. 

Doctor, 

f  doctoress, 

(  doctress. 

Tutor, 

tutoress, 
.  tutress. 

Hero, 

her'oine. 

Landgrave,   landgravine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Margrave, 

margravine. 

Joseph, 

Josephine. 

Paul, 

Pauline. 

Goodman, 

goody. 

Widower, 

widow. 

Don, 

donna. 

Infant, 

infanta. 

Signor, 

signora. 

Sultan, 

sultana, 
.  sultaness. 

Tzar, 

tzari'na. 

Augustus, 

Augusta. 

Cornelius, 

Cornelia. 

Louis, 

Loui'sa,  -ise'. 

NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS.  85 

John,  Joanna.  Jesse,  Jessie. 

Henry,  Henrietta.  Frank,    >       p^^^^^g, 

Julius,  Julia,  Juliet.  Francis, ) 

Words  derived  or  compounded  from  others,  usually 
express  gender  in  the  same  way. 

Archdide,        avfj^hducJiess.  GvcuilfatJier,    grandmotlicr. 

Laiid/ort/,         la.ndla(lij.  Step.so/?,  stepdaughter. 

Schoolmaster,   si:hoo\mistress.  Vaacock,  pcaAen. 

3.   By  using  a  distinguishing  word. 

Bear,       7;c'-bcar,  shc-hcAV.  Coci--sparro\v,        ^e«-sparrow. 

Goat,       hcgOAt,  she-goat.  JViu/e descendants, _/«/Ha^e  descendanta. 

Servant,  7na«-sorvant,  wa/VAscrvant.    1/     t?    .     11       i  ^^^^'  ^^^y^^VU, 
Eabbit,    buc/c-rnhUit,    </i>e-rabl)it.  '  '     i  Miss  Reynolds, 

Some  masculine  terms  have  rarely  or  never  corresponding  femi- 
nines,  as  halcer,  brewer,  lawyer :  and  some  feminine  terms  have  rarely 
or  never  corresponding  masculines,  as  laundress,  coquety  hag. 

The  gender,  and  why :  — 

Person,  corpse,  corps,  spirit,  angel,  they,  T,  hers,  game,  clergy, 
party,  nations.     John  is  a  noun,  and  she  is  a  pronoun. 

PERSON. 

22s,  Person  is  that  property  of  words  which  shows 
wliether  the  speaker  is  meant,  the  person  spoken  to,  or 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

229.  There  are  three  persons ;  the  firsts  the  second, 
and  the  tJiird. 

230.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  first  person^  when 
;it  denotes  the  speaker.     '•'^  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

231.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  second  person^  when 
it  denotes  the  person  spoken  to.  ^'-Paul^  thou  hast  writ- 
ten it." 

232.  A  noun  (Tr  pronoun  is  of  the  third  person,  when 


86  ENGLISH  GRMIMAB. 

it  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.     ^^  Paul  has 
written  iC 

233.  The  third  person  is  sometimes  ek^gantly  used  for 
the  first  or  second. 

Ex.  —  "  The  kinfj  is  always  wiHing  to  listen  to  the  just  complaints 
of  his  subjects";  for,  *'/  am  always  willin<j,"  etc.  "Surely,  my 
mother  does  not  mean  to  mai-ry  me  to  such  an  old  miser " ;  for, 
"  Surely,  mot  Iter,  you  do  not,"  etc. 

Wlien  inanimate  objects  are  addressed,  they  are  of  course  personi- 
fied, or  regarded  as  persons  ;  as,  *'  O  Liberty  !  what  crimes  ai'C  com- 
mitted in  thy  name  !  "  —  Madame  Roland. 

When  a  noun  comes  after  a  verb  and  explains  the  nominative,  it 
is  of  the  third  person,  though  the  nominative  may  be.  of  the  fii-st  or 
second  person  ;  as,  "  J  am  the  sheriff"  (1  am  he.)    "  You  are  heroes,* 

The  nouns  and  jnonouns,  and  tfhj ;  ofwliut  person,  and  whij  :  — 

You  will  find  that  many  evils  b(».>;ct  us  mortals. 

I  said  to  him,  Well,  ray  little  friend,  how  fare  the  school-boys? 

Change  into  the  other  persons :  — 

John  writes.     The  girls  study.     Henry,  you  may  play. 

Shall  Hannibal  compare  himself  v.'ith  this  half-year  captain  ? 

l^UMBER. 

234.  Hnmbor  is  that  property  of  words  which  sliows 
whether  one  object  is  meant,  or  more  than  one. 

235.  There  are  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

236.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  singular  number^ 
when  it  denotes  but  one  object.     Tree.,  she, 

237.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  of  the  'plural  number.^  wlicn 
it  denotes  more  objects  than  one.     Trees^  tliey. 

238.  A  proper  noun  is  made  plural,  when  it  is  needed 
to  denote  a  family,  race,  or  group,  or  two  or  more  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  name  or  character. 

Ex.  —  The  Dixons ;  the  Cherokees ;  the  Azores ;  the  twelve  Caesars. 


NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS. 


87 


239.  The  names  of  qualities,  states,  actions,  substances, 
arts,  sciences,  and  diseases,  when  the  reference  is  to  the 
kind  of  thing,  are  generally  used  in  the  singular  number 
only. 

Ex.  — Pride,  peace,  business,  gold,  grammar,  painting,  fever, 

240.  But  such  words  may  become  plural,  — 

1.  When  different  kinds  are  meant. 

Ex.  —  Teas,  fevers.  "  The  nationalities  and  religions  of  tho 
world."  —  Cliapin. 

2.  When  things  are  meant  that  have  the  property  or 
substance,  or  consist  of  parts. 

Ex.  —  Curiosities,  marbles,  paintings,  proceedings.  "The  Jieir/Jits 
around  the  city."  —  Gen.  Scott.  "  I  had  only  a  few  coppers  left."  — 
rianldin.    "I  heard  the  luaters  roar  down  the  cataract." —  Addison. 

241.  Some  nouns  are  always  plural,  especially  the 
names  of  things  consisting  of  two  or  many  parts. 


Aborig'ines 

Eaves 

Mat'ins 

Stairs 

Annals 

Embers 

Nuptials 

Statistics 

Antip'odes 

Entrails 

Kippers 

Stilts 

Ar'chlves 

Goggles 

Oats 

Suds 

Aslies 

Hatches 

Paraphernalia  Thanks 

As'sets 

Head'-quarters  Pinchers 

Teens 

Belles-let'tres 

Hose 

Pleiads 

Tongs 

EiUiards 

Hyster'ics 

Regalia 

Tidings 

Bitters 

Ides 

Riches 

Trousers 

Breeches 

Lees 

Remains 

Tweezers 

Cattle 

Litera'ti 

Scissors 

Victuals 

Clothes 

Lungs 

Shears 

Vitals 

Dregs 

Mammalia 

Snuffers 

Withers. 

To  the  forejTolng  list  belong  a  few  more  -words  less  common ;  also  most  of 
the  scientific  family  names  of  animals  and  plants. 

Some  nouns,  that  have  the  singular,  have  acquired  a  plural 
that  differs  from  it  in  meaning.  Plurals  of  this  kind  also  be- 
lons:  to  the  list  above. 


88 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Ex.  —  Arma^  weapons ;  colors,  banner ;  compasses,  dividers ;  divid- 
ers, an  instrument;  drawers,  an  article  of  clothing;  good.^,  merchan- 
dise ;  greens,  young  leaves  for  cooking  ;  grounds,  dregs ;  letters,  litera- 
ture ;  manners,  behavior  ;  morals,  morality  ;  shambles,  meat-market  f 
spectacles,  glasses ;  stat/s,  a  corset ;  vespers,  evening  hymn. 

242.  Sometimes  such  a  word  may  be  used  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  to  denote  a  part  or  an  individual. 

Ex.  —  "  The  left  lung  was  diseased."  —  Dr.  Rush.  "  A  mam- 
mal:' —  Goldsmith.     "  A  valuable  statistic." —  Census. 

243.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  either 
number. 

Deer  Series  News  Mathematics. 

Sheep  Species  Alms  Politics 

Swine  Corps  Odds  Physics 

Vermin  Appara'tus  Amends  Metaphysics 

Grouse  Bellows  Wages  Mechanics 

Head  (cattle)  Gallows  Pains  (care)         Glanders 

Sail  (ships)  Means  Ethics  Measles,  etc. 

It  seems  to  us  that  all  names  of  a  plural  form  that  denote  sciences  or  dis- 
eases, should  be  classed  under  this  head. 

News,  thouj^h  analogous  to  goods  and  odda,  seems  to  be  now  used  in  tho 
singular  number  only.      Wages  and  pains  are  generally  plural. 

Corps  is  pronounced  kore  in  the  singular  number,  and  kCrcs  In  the  plural. 

A  word  of  the  foregoing  class,  especially  if  applied  to  a  science  or 
a  disease,  often  denotes  what  is  singular  in  its  essence  but  plural  in  its 
manifestations ;  and  whether  the  word  should  be  considered  singular 
or  plural,  will  therefore  depend  on  our  conception  of  the  thing. 

244.  Some  -nouns  of  number,  preceded  by  a  numeral, 
and  some  nouns  denoting  small  animals  or  other  objects 
regarded  as  to  their  nature  or  in  mass,  are  also  often  used 
in  the  singular  form  to  express  either  number. 

Ex.  —  "  Twenty  pair  of  eyes."  —  Shakespeare.  "  Three  score  and 
ten." — Bible.  So,  brace,  dozen,  yoke.  ''This  creek  abounds  in 
trout  and  perch."  —  Exploring  Expedition.  "  The  foe  !  they  come ; 
they  come."  —  Byron.  Foot  and  horse,  meaning  troops,  are  thus 
often  used  in  a  plural  sense ;  and  sometimes  cannon  and  shut  are  thus 
used. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  89 

But  the  plural  forms  of  most  such  nouns  are  also  used,  espe- 
cially when  the  word  implies  number  or  individuals  rather  than 
kind  or  quantity. 

Ex.  — "  Trouts  and  salmons  swim  ajrainst  the  stream."  —  Bacon. 
"  As  pilchards  are  to  herrings."  —  Shakespeare.  "  ^y  scores  and 
dozens."  —  Id. 

It  seems,  indeed,  that  some  nouns,  such  a.sjish  and  fowl,  have 
two  plurals  ;  a  regular  one,  denoting  individuals  or  kinds,  and 
a  collective  one,  denoting  the  kind  of  thing,  in  which  the  word 
remains  unchanged  as  in  the  case  of  collective  nouns. 

2i5»    A  collective  noun  is  singular,  when  the  entire 
collection  is  regarded  as  one  thing. 
Ex.  —  The  army  was  large. 

246.  A  collective  noun  is  plural,  when  it  refers  to  the 
individuals  composing  the  collection. 

Ex.  —  Most  jDCo/;/e  are  too  solicitous  about  the  future. 

247.  A  collective  noun  is  plural,  when  it  has  the 
plural  form. 

Ex.  —  The  armies  were  large. 

How  the  Plural  Number  is  Expressed, 

248.  Most  nouns  are  made  plural,  by  adding  s  to  the 
singular. 

Ex. ^ Book,  5ooX:s ;  cMimney,  chimneys;  naiion,  nations. 

249.  Nouns  that  end  with  5,  x,  z,  sh,  or  soft  ch ;  and 
nouns  that  end  with  {,  o,  u,  or  «/,  preceded  each  by  a  con- 
sonant, —  are  made  plural  by  adding  es  to  the  singular. 

Ex.  —  Glass,  glasi^es ;  fox, /ozes;  topaz,  topazes;  bush,  huahes; 
chnvch,  churches  ;  &[kdX\,  alkalies ;  negro,  7iey roes  ;  gnu,  gnues;  story, 
stories.     (F  is  changed  to  i.     See  p.  50.) 

250.  When  a  vowel  precedes  final  o  ov  y,  s  only  is  an- 
nexed; as,  ioYiOy  folios;  monkey,  monkci/s. 


90 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


251 1  Proper  nouns,  foreign  nouns,  and  unusual  nouns, 
to  prevent  the  liability  of  mistaking  tliem,  are  varied  as 
little  as  i^ossible ;  and  hence  they  merely  assume  s,  or  es 
when  s  will  not  coalesce  in  sound. 

Ex.  —  Denny,  the  Denni/s  ;  Dennie,  the  Dennies ;  Peri,  Perb ; 
canto,  cantos ;  "  several  tos  "  [or  to's'\  ;  the  two  Miss  Foots.  But, 
Jones,  the  Joneses;  Fox,  the  Foxes. 

When  -words  of  these  classes  are  so  familiarly  known  as  to  be 
easily  recognized  in  almost  any  form,  they  are  often  made  plural 
like  ordinary  nouns;  as,  Henry,  Henries;  Nero,  Neroes;  no,  noes. 

Owing  to  their  foreign  tinge,  "we  still  find  in  good  use  cantos,  duo- 
decimos,  fandangos,  frescos,  grottos,  halos,  hidalgos,  juntos,  lassos^ 
mementos,  octavos,  pianos,  porticos,  quartos,  salvos,  solos,  tyros,  zeros^  in 
stead  of  cantoes,  grottoes,  etc.,  which  arc  also  coming  into  use. 

252.     The  followino:  nouns  clianije   the   endinf?   into 


Wharf,  j'^''"'''' 
C  wharves. 


Staff, 


(  staves  (sticks), 
(staffs  (officers). 


ves:  — 

Beef,   beeves.         Life,     lives.  "Wife,        wives. 

Calf,    calves.  Loaf,    loaves.         "Wolf,        wolves. 

Elf,      elves.  Self,      selves. 

Half    halves.         Sheaf,  sheaves. 

Knife,  knives.         Shelf,   shelves. 

Leaf,    leaves.         Thief,  thieves. 

<S/q/r always  makes  staffs  in  compounds;  as,  flagstaff,  flagstaffs. 

253.  For  forming  the  plural  of  some  words,  no  general 
rule  can  be  given ;  and  they  are  therefore  said  to  be 
irregular. 

Man,       men.  Goose,  geese. 

Woman,  women.  Tooth,  teeth. 

Child,      children.  Mouse,  mice. 

Ox,  oxen.  Louse,  lice. 


I,  we. 

Thou,  ye. 

He,  she,  or  it,  they. 

This,  these. 


Foot,       feet. 


Cow,      cows,  kine.    That, 


those. 


The  words  ending  with  wian,  that  are  not  compounds  of  man^  are 


NOUNS  AND   PRONOUNS.  91 

regular,  or  take  s ;  as,  German,  Germans ;  talisman,  talismans ;  Mus- 
sulman, Mussulmans. 

251 »  Some  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular 
plural,  but  with  a  difference  in  meaning. 

Btx)tlier,    brothers  (of  the  same  family),  brethren  (of  the  same  society). 

Die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining),  dice  (small  cubes  for  gaming). 

Fish,        ^a/<es  (individuals),  ^'sA  (quantity,  or  the  species),  i 

Genius,     yeniuses  (men  of  genius),  ge'nti  (spirits).  ' 

Index,       in'dexes  (tables  of  contents),  in'dices  (algebraic  signs). 

Penny,     pennies  (pieces  of  money),  pence  (how  much  in  value). 

Brothers  is  sometimes  used  ia  the  sense  of  brethren,  probably  as  a  moro 
affectionate  terra. 

255*     Most   compound   words   are   expressed   in   the 
plural  number,  by  making  plural  only  that  part  of  the 
word  which  is  described  by  the  rest. 
Mouse-trap,  mouse-traps.  Brother-in-law,  brothers-in-law. 

Cupful,  cUpfuls.    ^  Sister-in-law,     sisters-in-law. 

Spoonful,       spoonfuls.  Billet-doux.        billets-doux. 

Wagon-load,  wagon-loads.  Court-martial,    courts-martial. 

Ox-cart,  ox-carts.  Aid-de-camp,      aids-de-camp. 

256.  The  pluraHzed  part  of  a  compound  word  is  made 
plural  in  the  same  way  as  if  it  stood  alone. 

Ex.  —  Ilorsewjan,  horsemen;  dormouse,  dormice;  Jianger-oUf 
hangers-on. 

257.  When  a  compound  word  is  a  foreign  term  or 
other  phrase,  of  which  the  descriptive  part  is  not  very 
obvious,  the  whole  terra  generally  takes  the  regular 
plural  ending. 

Piano-forte,  plano-fortcs.  Tete-a-tete,        tfite-a-tetes. 

Camera-obscura,  camera-obscuraS.    Ipse-dixit,  ipse-dixits. 

Port-monnaie,       port-monnaies.  \  Jack-a-lantem,  Jaek-a-lanterns. 

-  258.    A  few  terms  have  both  parts  made  plural. 

Man-servant,        men-servants.  Ignis-fatuus,  ignes-fatui. 

Woman-servant,  women-servants.     Kuight  Templar,  Knights  Templars. 


D2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

259.  When  the  title  Mr.,  Miss,  or  Dr.,  is  used  with  a 
name,  the  whole  term  is  made  plural  by  making  plural 
the  title  only. 

Ex.  —  Mr.  Harper,  Messrs.  Harper ;  ISIIss  Brown,  the  Misses 
Brown  ;  Dr.  Lee,  Drs.  Lee ;  Messrs.  John  and  James  Morton ;  Misses 
Juha  and  Alice  Clark. 

260.  When  the  title  is  Mrs.,  or  wdien  the  word  two, 
three,  etc.,  stands  before  the  title,  the  latter  noun  is  made 
plural. 

Ex. —  "The  Mrs.  Barlows."  —  7m/?^.  "The  two  Miss  Scotts 
had  been  gathering  flowers."  —  Id. 

Other  terms,  consisting  of  names  and  titles,  follow  sometimes  one 
analogy,  and  sometimes  the  other.  "  From  Dutehesscs  and  Lad^ 
Maries."  —  Pope.  "I  went  to  the  Ladies  Butler."  —  Swift.  "May 
there  be  Sir  Isaac  Newtons  in  every  science." — Watts. 

261.  Words  adopted  from  other  languages  usually 
retain  their  foreign  plurals  in  our  language.  Some,  how- 
ever, take  the  English  plural  only ;  some,  the  foreign ; 
and  some,  either. 

No  certain  rule  can  be  given  for  forming  such  plurals,  but  the  fol- 
lowing rules  may  be  of  some  assistance :  — 

1.  The  endins:  a  is  clian(]jed  to  cc  or  ata, 

2.  The  cndinij  us  is  changed  to  i. 

8.  The  ending:  um  or  on  is  chan<]jed  to  a, 

4.  The  ending  is  is  changed  to  es  or  ides. 

5.  The  ending  x  or  ex  is  changed  to  ces  or  ices, 

B  means  that  the  word  before  It  naa  also  the  regular  English  plural. 
Cliange  jinal 


Atoa©:— 

Fib'ula 

Minu'tia 

A  to  ata :  — 

Alum'na 

Form'ula,  R. 

Neb'ula 

Dogma,  R. 

{alumna) 

T*am'ina 

Sco'ria 

{dogmas,  dogmata) 

Arc'na,  R. 

Lar'va 

Sim'ia 

Stigma,  R. 

Cica'da,  R. 

Mac'uU 

Vcr'tcbra 

Mias'ma 

NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


93 


Ustoi:  — 

Alum'nus 
{alainnl) 
Ciil'culus 
Echi'ims 
Focus,  R. 
Fungus,  R. 
llippopoi'amuSjR 
MaVus 
Nau'tilus,  R. 
Nu'cleus,  R. 
Pol'ypus,  R. 
Ra'dius,  R. 
Surcopli'agus 
Stim'ulus 
Ter'mitius 
Tu'mulus 

TJm  or  onto  a: 

Animal'culutn 

{animalculu) 

Aphc'lion, 

Aqua'riura,  U. 

JVrca'num 

Autom'aton,  R. 

Corrigcn'ilum. 

Critc'rion,  R. 

Datura 

Desidera'tum 

EfHu'viura 

Ephem'cron 

Enco'mium,  R. 

EiTa^ium 


Fulcrum,  R. 
Gvmna'sium,  R. 
IIt'rl)a'rium,,R. 
Me'dium,  R. 


Phasis 

Praxis 

Synop'bis 

Syn'thcsis 


Menioran'dum,  R.  Thesis 
Men'struuni,  R. 
Momen'tum,  R. 
Parhe'lion 
Pcrihe'Iion 
Phenom  'cnon 
Rostrum,  R. 
Scho'lium,  R. 
Spectrum,  R. 
Spec'ulum,  R. 
Stratum,  R. 
Trape'zium,  R. 
Viu'culum,  R. 

Is  to  es:  — 

Amanuen'sis 
{aiiia7iucnscs) 


Anal'ysis 

Antitli'csis 

Axis  Y 

Basis 

Crisis  V 

Diajr'csis 

Di'csis 

Ellip'sis 

Em'phasis 

Ilypoth'csis 

Metamor'phosis 

O'asis 

Paren'thesig 


Is  to  ides :  — 

Apliis 

[(tph'iJes) 

Apsis 

Cau'iharis 

Chrys'alis 

Ephem'cris 

Epidcr'mis 

Iris,  R. 

Probos'cis 

X  to  ces:  — 


Appendix,  R. 
(appen'dixes, 
appeudtcea) 
Calx,  R. 
Ca'lyx,  R. 
Cica'trix,  R. 
Ile'lix,  R. 
Ma'trix,  R. 
Ea'dix,  R. 

Ex  to  ices :  —  '^^cr'ii-o,  E., 
verthfines. 
Apex,  R. 

{u'pexes,  a p' ices) 
Vertex,  R. 
Vortex,  R. 


Less  Regular. 
Beau,  R., 
leaux. 
Bandit,  R., 
landita. 
Cher'ub,  R., 
cher'ubim. 
Gc'nus,  y 
gen' era. 
llia'tus,  R., 
hiatus. 

Lar'ynx,  R., 
larynUjes. 
Madame, 
Mesdames. 
Monsieur, 
Messieurs. 
Mr., 
Messrs. 
Pha'Ianx,  R., 
phalan'yes. 
Scr'aph,  R, 
scr'apliim. 
Sta'men,  R., 
siam'ina. 


Virtuo'so, 

virtuosos, 

virtuosi. 


The  English  plurals   of  the  foregoing  words  are  generally  pre- 
ferred in  familiar  language ;  and  the  foreign,  in  scientific. 

282,    Letters,  figures,  and  other  characters,  arc  made 
plural  by  annexing  's. 

-    Ex.  —  "The  a's  and  n's  in  the  first  line."     "By  5's  and  7V* 
«  What  mean  those  |'s  and  9's?"     The  apostropho  is  used  to  pre- 


94  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

vent  ambiguity ;  thus,  "  Cross  your  t's  and  dot  your  i*.?,"  is  not  the 
same  as  "  Cross  your  ts  and  dot  your  is."  5s  might  mean  5  shillings 
or  five  times  s. 

Numbers  of  Pronouns. 

263.  In  editorials,  speeches,  and  proclamations,  we, 
our,  us,  etc.,  are  frequently  used  to  denote  apparently 
but  one. 

Ex.  —  "  We  believe  that  the  war  can  not  last  much  longer.** 

London  Times. 

This  manner  of  speaking  gives  generally  an  air  of  modesty  or 
authority  to  the  assertion  ;  the  speaker  seeming  to  deliver  his  own 
sentiments  as  if  they  were  also  entertained  or  could  be  enforced  ty 
others  as  well  as  by  himself. 

To  the  foregoing  maimer  of  speaking,  0Mr.<f<?Z/*is  peculiarly  adapted, 
and  it  is  sometimes  used  accordingly.  "  AVhat  then  remains  ?  Our- 
self,"  —  Popii'd  Goddess  of  Dullness. 

2G4.  You,  your,  and  yours,  are  now  singular  as  well 
as  plural ;  but  yourself  is  strictly  singular. 

2Gj.  IVhat,  in  close  connection  with  a  plural,  is  some- 
times used  in  the  plural  number. 

Ex.  —  *'We  were  now  at  the  mercy  of  tohat  arc  called  guerillas." 

233.  None  (no-one)  is  used  in  either  the  singular  or 
the  plural  number. 

Ex.  —  '■''None  is  good  save  One."  —  Bible.  *'  None  arc  completely 
happy."  —  Blair. 

267.  Helative,  interrogative,  and  some  adjective  pro- 
nouns, have  the  same  form  for  both  numbers;  and  most 
other  pronouns  are  irregular. 

For  the  analogies  which  most  pronouns  follow,  see  paragriphs  243  and  253. 
The  number,  and  why :  — 

Rose,  roses,  molasses,  ashes,  family,  families,  T,  n'c,  him, 
them,  two,  a  two,  a  pair,  two  pair,  memoranda,  miasma,  cheru- 
bim, optics,  commanders-in-chief,  orang-outangs. 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  95 

SpcU  the  plural  of  the  following  words  :  — 

Sofa,  larva,  house,  mouse,  feather-bed,  booth,  tooth,  ox,  box, 
root,  foot,  turf,  wolf,  genus,  genius,  isthmus,  trio,  cargo,  valley, 
Tully,  alley,  ally,  trellis,  ellipsis,  JMr.  Jones,  Mrs.  Jones. 

CASE. 

268.  Case  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
which  shows  how  they  are  used  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

209.  There  are  three  cases ;  the  nominative^  the  pos^ 
sessive,  and  the  ohjective, 

IToninativo  Caso. 

270.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
when  it  is  the  subject  of  a  predicate-verb. 

That  is,  when  an  act  or  state  is  predicated  of  it,  — See  page  5. 
Ex.  —  ^*Jolin  struck  James."     {Who  struck  James ?)     "  The  rose 
is  beautiful."     (  What  is  beautiful  V)     "  He  came  after  /  left." 
"W.   Him  and  me  went  to  school  together.  —  See  p.  103. 

271.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  also  in  the  nominative  case, 
when  it  is  used  independently  or  absolutely. 

272.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  independently,  — 

1.  By  direct  address.     "  John^  your  father  is  here." 

2.  By  exclamation.     "  Alas,  poor  Yorick  !  " 

3.  By  pleonasm  or  specification.  *'  He  that  hath  ears, 
let  him  hear."     "  Worcester's  Dictionary,  Unabridged." 

To  this  last  head  belong  inscriptions,  and  generally  those  nouns 
wliich  arc  used  merely  to  name  objects.  —  See  p.  100. 

272.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  absolutely,  when,  by 
some  abridgment,  it  is  set  free,  or  absolved,  from  its  nom- 
inative relation  to  a  finite  verb,  but  still  remains  with  the 
participle  or  the  infinitive. 


96  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.    - 

"  The  house  being  sold,  wc  rcmo%*ed.'*     (When  the  house  wias  sold,  etc.) 
**  The  vanity  of  being  a  belle."     {"  That  she  was  a  Idle") 
"  To  become  a  scholar ,  requires  exertion."     ("He  has  become  a  scholar") 
"W,   Me  being  sick,  the  business  was  neglected.  —  See  p.  103. 

Possoosive  Case. 

274.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  possessive  case,  when 
it  denotes  possession. 

Ex.  —  Johns  horse.     (Whose  horse  ?)     Mj;  slate. 

Possession  may  be  past,  or  future  and  intended,  as  well  as  present 
and  actual ;  as,  *'  Webster's  Dictionary  " ;  "  Men's  boots  for  sale  here." 
The  former  example  implies  orif/in ;  the  latter,  fitness. 

275.  The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed  by  an- 
nexing to  the  name  of  the  owner  an  apostrophe  ('},  and 
then  the  letter  s. 

Ex. — Mary's  slate.     Burns' s  poems.     Men's  affairs. 

"W.    Henrys  books.     Brooks'  translation.     Childrcns'  playthings. 

2rG.  The  apostrophe  only  is  annexed  to  plural  nouns  that 
end  with  «. 

Ex.  —  The  soldiers'  camp. 

277.  The  possessive  s  is  Eometimes  omitted  from  eingular 
nouns  that  end  with  the  sound  of  s,  when  so  many  hissing 
sounds  would  come  together  as  to  produce  unusual  harshness. 

Ex. — "  The  defeat  of  Xerxes'  army  wgis  the  downfall  of  Persia." 

Rollin. 

A  singular  noun  that  ends  with  an  s-sound,  should  generally  have 
the  apostrophe  and  s;  as,  ^^  Dennis's  Works."  —  J*ope.  ^^  LouL>'s 
reign."  —  Macaulay.  "  Charles's  affairs."  —  Prescott.  "  For  con- 
science' sake,"  "  For  goodness'  sake,"  are  rather  idiomatic  exceptions 
to  the  rule,  than  fair  illustrations  of  a  general  principle. 

Possession  may  also  be  expressed  by  o/,  and  sometimes  by  an  ad- 
jective, or  a  noun  made  an  adjective ;  hence,  — 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  9T 

278.  The  meaning  of  the  possessive  case  is  sometimes 
more  elegantly  expressed  by  using  o/*,  or  by  making  the 
possessive  word  an  adjective. 

"  The  death  of  Socrates "  is  a  better  expression  than  "  Socrates's 
death";  and  "Lucas  Place"  is  quite  as  intelligible  as  Lucas's 
Place." 

W.    Essex's  death.    Demosthenes's  orations, 

279.  The  two  possessive  forms  of  such  words  as  deer  and 
sheep  are  distinguished  by  placing  the  apostrophe  before  the  s 
in  the  singular  number,  and  after  it  in  the  plural ;  as,  deer% 
deers'.    This  is  a  questionable  rule. 

280.  A  compound  or  complex  term  takes  the  posses*- 
sive  sign  but  once ;  generally  at  the  end,  or  next  to  the 
na:ne  of  what  is  owned. 

Ex.  — The  court-mardaVs decisions;  the  courts-martiafs  decisions. 

"  The  Bishop  of  LandaJTs  residence."  "  Edward  EveretCs  ora- 
tion." "  At  HaWs,  the  baker."  "  At  UaU  the  baker's:*  Supply  resi- 
dence or  store. 

W.    At  Smith's,  the  bookseller's. 

281.  A  pair  or  series  of  nouns,  implying  common  pos- 
session, 'take  the  possessive  sign  at  the  end,  and  but 
once. 

Ex.  —  "  Oakley  and  Mason^s  store  ";  i.  c,  the  store  of  Oakley  and 
Mason. 

282.  A  pair  or  series  of  nouns,  not  implying  common 
possession,  or  emphatically  distinguished,  take  each  the 
possessive  sign, 

Ex.  —  ^^Webster's  and  Worcester's  Dictionary";  i.  e.,  Webster's 
Dictionary  and  Worcester's  Dictionary.  "  By  his  motJier's  as  well  as 
his  father's  advice." 

W.   John  and  Mary's  books.  -,  ' 

In  such  expressions  as  all  the  foregoing,  of  la  sometimes  preferable. 
5  a 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Idiomatic  Expressions.  —  "A  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's** 
is  equivalent  to  "  A  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  discoveries.** 
"  That  head  of  yours"  however,  is  not  equivalent  to  " That  head  of 
your  heads " ;  but  the  expression  can  be  parsed  by  considering  it 
equivalent  to  "  That  head  of  your  possession."  —  See  p.  103. 

Objective  Case. 

283.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  ohjective  case,  when 
it  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition. 

Transitive  means  passing  over.  A  transitive  rerb  generally  denoteg  an  act  that 
passes  over  from  oa^  person  or  tiling  to  another  -,  as,  strike.  The  object  of  a  transitive 
Verb  or  a  preposition  is  the  nouu  or  pronoun  which  completes  its  relation. 

Ex.  —  "The   soldiers  carried   their  bleeding  companion   to  the 

river.**     (Carried  whom  ?  to  what  ?)     "  Whom  did  you  send  to  me  ?  " 

W.   Who  do  you  want  ?     Who  did  you  send  for  ?     See  p.  1 03. 

284.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  also  in  the  objective  case, 
•when  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adjunct. 

An  adjunct  is  a  preposition  with  the  noun  or  pi'onoun  required  after  it  to 
complete  the  sense  j  as,  "o»  thejtoar.^* 

Ex.  —  "I  do  not  care  a  straw."  Care  not  how  much?  "The 
street  is  a  mile  long,  and  sixty  feet  wide."  Long  and  wide  to  what 
extent?     "He  went  home."    Went  to  what  place  ? 

The  objectives  under  the  latter  head  are  simply  phrases  from 
which  the  preposition  has  been  dropped ;  as,  "  He  remained  Jii^e 
days  "  ==  He  remained  during  Jive  days.  In  many  cases  the  prepo- 
sition can  be  supplied :  but  when  such  an  abridged  mode  of  expres- 
sion has  struck  root  in  a  language,  there  springs  up  at  once  an  idiom ; 
and  since  the  relation  of  the  object  to  the  other  word  is  simply  the 
known  relation  between  the  things,  cases  may  occur  in  which  no  suit- 
able preposition  can  be  found,  for  that  relation  may  never  have  been 
expressed  by  any  preposition  in  the  language. 

285.  There  are  expressions,  however,  obviously  elh'p- 
ticah 

Ex.  — "Dr.  Hush,  No.  340,  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia, Penn." 
To  Dr.  Bush,  <U  No.  340,  on  Chestnut  Street,  in  Philadelpliia,  in  Pennsylvania. 


-^i^ 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  99 

Samo  Case. 

286t   A  noun  or  pronoun  is  generally  in  the  same  case 
as  another,  when  it  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing. 
Ex.  —  "  Cortez,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  was  a  brave  man.** 
Cortex  may  be  called  the  leading  or  principal  term ;  and  the  other, 
the  subordinate  or  explanatory  term. 

287.  The  subordinate  term  may  be,  — 

1.  An  emphatic  word.     "  Brown  himself  went." 

2.  An   explanatory  word.     "  Brown  the  merchant.''* 

3.  A  repeated  word,  repeated  for  emphasis  or  expla- 
nation. "I,  /,  am  the  man."  "Company,  villainous 
company.,  has  been  the  ruin  of  me." 

288.  Under  same  case,  two  kinds  of  construction  may 
be  noticed ;  predlcatia7i  and  apposition, 

289.  When  an  intransitive  or  passive  verb  joins  the 
two  terms,  the  latter  is  said  to  be  jjredicaied  of  the  other, 
and  may  be  called  a  predicate  nominative  or  substantive. 

Ex.  —  "  He  is  Governor."  "  He  was  elected  Governor."  "  Tlie 
world  is  but  a  stafje,  and  all  the  men  and  women  [arc]  merely  plaij- 
ers."  —  Shakespeare. 

"  Tom  struts  a  soldier."  —  Pope.     "  She  walks  a  queen."  —  Id. 

W.   It  was  me.     Is  it  him  ?     I  knew  it  was  her.  —  See  p.  103. 

290.  The  verb  declares  the  identity  between  the  two 
terms,  or  shows  how  that  identity  is  acquired  or  made 
known. 

When  an  infinitive  or  a  participle  joins  the  explanatory  term  to 
an  objective  term,  the  relation  is  still  predication  rather  than  apposi- 
tion ;  but  the  explanatory  term  should  then  be  called  simply  a  pred- 
icafe-siibstantive,  for  it  is  not  a  nominative ;  as,  "  I  know  it  to  be 
him."  After  a  participle,  the  explanatory  term  is  generally  a  pre- 
dlcaie-nominative  ;  as,  "  He,  being  the  brother ^  interceded." 


100  EKGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

291  •  When  no  verb  joins  tlie  terms,  the  latter  term  is 
said  to  he  in  apposition  witli  the  other,  and  is  called  an 
appos'itive. 

Ex.  —  "  "Webster,  the  orator  and  statesman,  was  not  related  to  Web- 
ster the  lexicor/ra/jher."  "  At  Smith's,  the  bookseller."  "  A  firth,  or 
frith."  ^^  As  a  statesman, 'he  had  great  ability."  "It  is  useless  to 
resist."  "  It  is  plain  that  he  must  fail."  The  terms  in  apposition  some- 
times differ  in  form,  as  Smith's  and  bookseller  above.  —  See  p.  211. 

202.  Two  words  are  also  in  apposition,  when  both  are 
objects  of  a  verb  that  produces  the  identity. 

Ex. — "  They  named  her  Mary."     (She  was  named  Afarj/.} 

"  They  elected  him  Mat/or."     (He  was  elected  Mayor.) 

293.  Two  or  more  explanatory  nouns  are  also  in  appo- 
sition, when  used  together  to  denote  the  same  person; 
though  they  may  not  be  explanatory  of  each  other, 

Ex.  — Yonder  lives  a  great  scholar  and  statesman. 

291.  The  explanatory  term  sometimes  precedes  the 
other,  or  the  verb. 

Ex.  —  "  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear." —  Goldsmith. 

"  Who  is  he  ?  "    lie  is  who  ?    (  Who  asks  for  explanation.) 

295.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  explanatory 
term  should  agree  with  the  other  in  any  thing  else  than 
case. 

Ex.  —  "  Our  liberties,  our  greatest  blessing,  we  shall  not  give  up  so 
easily."    "  /  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  /  to  the  lame." 

296.  The  whole  is  sometimes  again  mentioned  by  a 
distributive  word,  or  by  words  denoting  the  parts ;  and 
sometimes  the  separate  persons  or  things  are  summed  up 
in  one  emphatic  word  denoting  the  whole. 

Ex.  —  "  They  bore  'each  a  banner."  "  The  two  love  each  [love? 
the]  other."     (See  p.  80.)     "  Time,  labor,  money,  aU  were  lost.** 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOpI^si  ^     ,      .  .  -  ,      ;  XOl 

"  But  those  that  sleep,  and  think  not  of  their  sins, 
Pinch  THEM, — arms,  legs,  backs,  shoulders,  sides,  and  shins." — Shak, 

207.  Tho  explanatory  term  is  sometimes  cut  off  from 
the  other  by  a  governing  word,  and  may  then  be  differ- 
ent in  case. 

Ex.  — Yonder  is  the  city  of  St.  Louis. 

Cases  of  Pronouns. 

2S8.  The  compound  personal  pronouns,  and  some  other 
pronouns,  are  used  only  in  the  nominative  and  the  objec- 
tive case ;  and  for  both  they  have  the  same  form. 

Sec  the  declension  of  pronouns,  p.  103. 

299.   To  express  emphatic  distinction  in  the  possessive 
case,  wc  use  the  word  oivn  in  stead  of  self  or  selves. 
Ex.  —  Every  man  should  attend  to  his  own  business. 

SCO.  Who  is  declined,  tuJiat  is  not  declined,  and  which 
and  that  borrow  whoce ;  but  all  the  relative  pronouns 
have  the  same  form  for  both  numbers. 

301.  What,  used  as  a  common  relative  pronoun,  and 
sometimes  other  expressions  of  the  same  kind,  may  sup- 
ply two  cases. 

Ex.  —  "  Take  what  suits  you.**  Here  what  is  the  object  of  take  and 
also  the  subject  of  suits. 

302.  "When  the  form  of  the  relative  prevents  it  from  fur- 
nishing two  cases,  it  must  take  the  form  required  for  its  own 
clause,  and  a  suitable  antecedent  must  be  supplied  for  the  other 
clause. 

Ex.  —  "  Give  it  to  whoever  needs  it."  Whoever  can  not  be  both 
objective  and  nominative  ;  therefore  its  nominative  form  is  preferred 
so  as  to  suit  the  verb  needs,  and  an  antecedent  is  supplied  for  to. 


1^2 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


♦'  Give  It  to  awf  person  who  \that]  needs  it."  The  ever  or  soever 
must  generally  be  omitted  when  the  antecedent  is  supplied.  —  See 
p.  78. 

203.  When  what  is  interrogative  or  responsive,  it  has 
but  one  case,  and  that  depends  on  some  word  in  its  own 

clause. 

Ex.  — "TF/ia<  is  it?  — I  do  not  know  what  it  is."'  What  is  in  the 
nominative  ease  agreeing  with  It.  Know  governs  not  what,  but  the 
entire  clause  beginning  with  what. 

S04.    One,  other,  and  another,  are  declined  like  nouns. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

Having  shown  you  what  properties  nouns  and  pronouns  have,  we 
shall  next  show  you,  briefly  and  regularly,  how  the  diflercnt  nouns 
and  pronouns  are  written  to  express  these  properties.  This  pro- 
cess is  called  declension. 

305.  To  Decline  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  to  show,  in 
some  regular  way,  what  forms  it  has  to  express  its  gram- 
matical properties. 

Observe  that  nouns  sometimes  remain  unchanged,  and  that  pro- 
nouns are  sometimes  wholly  changed,  to  express  their  properties. 


A 

ITOTJNS. 

Singular 

1. 

Plural. 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Boy, 

boy's, 

boy ; 

boys, 

boys', 

boys. 

Man, 

man's, 

man; 

men, 

men's, 

men. 

Lady, 

lady's, 

lady; 

ladies, 

ladies', 

ladies. 

Fox, 

fox's. 

fox; 

foxes, 

foxes', 

foxes. 

Smith, 

Smith's, 

Smith ; 

Smiths, 

Smiths', 

Smiths. 

John, 

John's, 

John. 

Decline 

I  Mari/,  woman,  ducht 

?ss,  state,  farmer,  Benjamin,  city. 

K-V*^^' 


KOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 


103 


PRONOUNS 

Singular. 


Plural. 


1st  Pe 


-{ 


2d  Pers. 


3dPe: 


1st  Pers. 
2d  Pers. 
£4  Pers. 


Norn. 
I, 

Thou, 

You, 

Mas,  He, 


Poss. 

I  my,     I 
(mine,  ) 

(thine,  i 


me; 


Aoin.         Poss. 

(  our, 
(  ours 


we, 


,} 


thee ;    ye. 


(your, 


j^^^^'lyou: 
(  yours, ) 


j  yours, 

you,  C 


his, 


him: 


0^^'^      Uer; 
rs,    ) 


they, 


( their, 


Obj. 
us. 

you. 


( theirs, 


Singular 
or 

PLUBAL. 


Fem.She,  j^^^^ 

^eut.  It,         its,  it ; 

Norn,  or  ObJ. 
Myself  {or  ourself) ; 
Thyself  or  yourself; 
Himself,  herself,  itself; 
Kom.      Poss.         ObJ.         Nom 
One,     one's,     one;      ones,      ones*,     ones. 
Other,  other's,  other;   others,  others',  others. 
None,    none ;     none, 

fWho, 
Which, 


them. 


Nom.  or  06/. 
ourselves, 
yourselves, 
themselves. 
Poss.        Obj, 


none. 


What, 

That, 

As, 


whose, 
(whose,) 

(whose.) 


whom,  (-ever  or  -soever.) 
which.  " 

what.  " 

that.  " 

as.  " 


Decline  I,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  it,  myself,  thyself,  yourself,  him" 
self,  herself,  itself,  one,  other,  who,  whoever,  whosoever,  which, 
whichever,  what,  that,  as,  none. 

Exorcises. 

Tell  which  words  are  nouns,  and  wh/ ;  which  words  are  pronouns,  and  why:  —• 
Tell  what  kind  of  noun,  and  why ;  what  kind  of  pronoun,  and  why ;  — 
Mention  the  gender,  and  why  :  — 
Mention  the  person,  and  why:-^ 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Mention  the  numher,  and  why :  — 

Mention  the  case^  and  why ;  or  show  on  what  word  it  depends:  — 
It  will  probably  be  best  to  interrogate  the  pupil  on  but  one  thing  at  a  time,  through  all 
the  following  sentences. 

Jesus  wept.  Farmers  plough.  Iron  rusts.  Jerusalem  was 
destroyed.  He  works.  She  studies.  I  thank  you.  John 
found  Mary's  l)ook.  Lucy's  lamb  nips  the  grass.  Our  friends 
are  kind.  Albert  wrote  his  name  in  his  book.  Love  and 
Idndness  go  together.  Colonel  Thomas  H.  Benton  died  in  the 
year  1858.  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans.  Hatred  produces 
strife.  Vain  people  love  flattery.  Must  I  leave  thee,  Para- 
dise? Captain  Cook  sailed  round  the  world.  We  went  to 
Boston.  Boston  is  the  capital  of  Massachusetts.  Youth,  the 
morning  of  life,  is  often  misspent.  She  seemed  a  creature  fresh 
from  the  hands  of  God.  A  herd  of  buffaloes  crossed  the 
prairie.  A  flock  of  blackbirds  is  on  the  tree.  The  groves 
were  God's  first  temples.  There  are  lions  and  ostriches  in 
Africa.  She  deceived  herself.  The  lady  who  had  been  sick, 
received  the  peaches  which  were  ripe.  This  is  the  same  marble 
that  you  gave  me,  and  it  is  the  best  one  that  I  have.  Is  this 
apple  yours,  or  mine?  We  bought  only  such  mules  as  we 
needed.  Who  is  perfect  ?  Whom  did  you  see  ?  What  you 
thoroughly  understand,  you  can  easily  describe.  Whatsoever 
comes  from  the  heart,  goes  to  the  heart.  Ferdinand  lyid  Isa- 
bella, the  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  enabled  Columbus,  a  Gen- 
oese, to  discover  America.  Liberty  has  God  on  her  side. 
Bad  boys  spoil  good  ones.  I  am  the  captain,  sir.  There  has 
been  much  severe  fighting  in  crushing  this  rebellion.  I  like 
apples.  I  like  to  skate.  Learn  the  koio  and  the  ivlii/.  Why 
he  went,  is  obvious.  (What  is  obvious  ?)  I  know  that  you  can 
learn.  (I  know  what  ?)  It  is  probable  that  he  will  be  elected. 
(What  is  probable?)  The  storm  having  ceased,  we  renewed 
our  journey. 

*'  On  that  day  of  desolation,  lady,  I  was  captive  made ; 
Bleeding  for  my  Christian  nation,  by  the  walls  of  high  Belgrade."* 


ARTICLES.  105 

What  is  the  ohjectite  corrpsponding  to  — 

I  ?  —  thou  ?  —  we  ?  —  ye  2  —  you  ?  —  he  ?  —  she  ?  —  it  ?  — 
they  ?  —  who  ? 

What  is  the  vominative  correspondinr)  to  — 

Me  ?  —  us  ?  —  thee  ?  —  him  ?  —  whom  ?  —  her  ?  —  hers  ?  — 
them  ?  —  themselves  ?  —  herself  ?  —  it  ?  —  which  ? 

Form  the  compound  pronoun :  — 

My,  our,  thy,  your,  him,  her,  it,  them,  wlio,  which,  what. 

Of  what  gender,  person,  number,  and  case  is  each  of  the  following  pronouns? 

Him,  his,  its,  he,  them,  it,  I,  you,  thy,  their,  she,  thou,  me, 
your,  us,  they,  my,  mine,  thiiie,  yours,  hers,  others,  theirs, 
we,  thee,  our,  ours,  ye,  myself,  themselves,  ourselves,  thyself, 
yourselves,  yourself,  himself,  itself,  herself,  one,  none,  one's, 
ones',  other,  others',  who,  what,  which,  whatever. 

ARTICLES. 

8C6i  An  Articlo  is  the  word  ihe^  a,  or  an,  placed 
before  a  noun  to  limit  its  meaning. 

Ex.  —  Horses  ;  a  horse,  the  horse,  the  horses ;  the  others. 
Sometimes  an  article,  as  in  the  last  example,  is  placed  before  a  pronoun. 

Claociflcation.  |fff^^°-    ^ 

C  Indejimte^  A  or  An. 

807.  The  is  used  to  point  out  a  particular  object  or  class, 
or  something  as  being  a  particular  one,  part,  or  group. 

"  The  sun";  t.  c,  not  a  particular  sun,,  but  a  particular  object 
that  is  called  sun. 

"  Plonor  the  soldier  " ;  "  Here  hved  the  Cherokees."  A  particular 
class  of  persons. 

"  The  firet  man" ;  "  the  lungs  " ;  "  the  first  men."    One,  part,  group. 

Sometimes  the  may  point  out  cither  a  particular  one  or  part  of  a 
class,  or  else  the  entire  class  as  distinguished  from  other  kinds  of  ob- 
jects ;  as,  "  The  bee  stung  him  " ;  "  The  bee  is  a  pattern  of  industry'.'* 

W.   Wisest  and  best  men  sometimes  commit  errors. 

Sometimes  one  article  is  improperly  used  for  another. 


10^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3C8.  The  sometimes  precedes  a  proper  noun,  to  ren- 
der it  sufficiently  definite  ;  or  it  points  out  an  object  as 
already  known,  or  as  pre-eminently  distinguislied. 

Ex.  —  Ohio  means  a  State  ;  but  the  Ohio,  a  river. 

"  The  Fulton  went  up  the  river  this  morning." 

*'  Fulton  went  up  the  river  this  morning,"  may  relate  to  a  man. 

*'  The  generous  Lafayette  and  the  noble  Washington.^* 

*'  These  are  the  sacred  feelings  of  thy  heart,  O  Lyttleton,  the  friend.^ 

W.    Connecticut  is  a  beautiful  river.     - 

SG9.   The  may  relate  to  a  singular  or  a  plural  word, 

Ex.  —  The  river,  the  rivers ;  the  fourth  man^  the  four  men. 

310.  A  or  An  is  used  to  show  that  no  particular  one 
of  a  class  is  meant. 

A  man,  an  insect ;  a  small  picture.     "  lie  -was  a  merchant." 

W.    The  interest  is  the  fourth  part  of  the  debt. 

SI!.  A  or  an  can  be  used  to  point  out  one  only,  or 
one  aggregate.  Sometimes  more  arc  spoken  of,  but  they 
are  still  considered  one  by  one. 

Ex.  —  "  ^  pen " ;  not,  a  pens.  An  eye  ;  a  large  tree  ;  a  dozen 
apples ;  a  wealthy  people  ;  a  few  dimes.  "  We  paid  for  the  mules 
a  hundred  dollars  a  head." 

W.   A  winding  stairs  led  us  to  the  observatory.    ( A  flight  of,  etc.) 

When  a  noun  is  limited  by  other  words,  the  indefinite  article  does 
not  relate  merely  to  the  noun,  but  to  the  noun  with  its  limitations. 
*'  A  young  man,"  "  A  man  of  fine  sense,"  do  not  mean  no  particular 
man,  but  no  particular  young  man,  no  particular  man  of  fine  sense. 

312.  A  and  an  are  both  called  the  indefinite  article; 
because  they  are  but  a  later  and  an  earlier  form  of  the 
same  word,  have  the  same  meaning,  and  differ  in  use  only. 

313.  A  should  be  used  whenever  the  next  w^ord  be- 
gins with  a  consonant  sound. 

U  long,  CK,  w,  0  in  one,  and  y  articulated  with  a  vowel 
after  it,  have  each  a  consonant  sound. 


ARTICLES.  107 

Ex.  —  A  bfotbcr,  a  cup,  a  union,  a  eulogy  ;  sucli  a  one. 
W.   An  useful  exercise.     An  hundred  men.     Such  an  one, 

3M.  An  should  bo  used  whenever  the  next  word  be- 
gins with  a  vowel  sound. 

That  is,  an  should  bo  used  before  a,  ^,  t,  o,  u  not 
equivalent  to  yu^  y  equivalent  to  i,  silent  A,  and  li  faintljr 
sounded  when  the  next  syllable  has  the  chief  accent.         i 

Ex.  —  An  arm,  an  car,  an  inch,  an  oar,  an  hour ;  an  hero'ic  deed* 

W.   A  interest.     A  adjective.    A  officer.    A  honor.    A  historian. 

315.  No  Article  is  used  when  we  refer  chiefly  \.o  the 
nature  of  the  object,  to  the  class  generally,  or  to  only  a 
part  indefinitely ;  also  when  the  substantive  is  sufficiently 
definite  itself,  or  is  rendered  so  by  other  words. 

Ex.  —  Meal  is  dearer  than  Jiread.  Gold  is  heavier  than  silver^ 
Peaches  are  better  than  applet.  Virtue  and  x'ice  are  opposites.  Work- 
ing is  better  than  starving.  He  honors  the  name  o^  gentleman.  Man 
is  endowed  with  reason.  There  a,reji.shes  that  have  wings.  George; 
Post-Office  ;  that  tree ;  some  tree  ;  words  that  breathe.  "  They  were 
the  means  by  which  "  ;  not,  the  which. 

W.   A  cypress  is  a  curious  species  of  a  tree. 

The  highest  officer  of  a  State  is  styled  a  Governor. 
Heason  was  given  to  a.  man  to  control  his  passions. 

The  article,  and  why;  whetha'  definite  or  indefinite,  and  whj  ;  and  to  what 
word  it  relates :  — 

The  roses  in  the  garden.  (  The  -what  ?)  The  rose  is  a  beau- 
tiful flower.  A  fish  from  the  river.  A  daughter  of  a  duke. 
The  daughter  of  the  duke.  A  daughter  of  the  duke.  An 
eagle's  nest. 

Place  the  proper  indefinite  article  before  each  of  the  following  words  or 
phrases:  — 

Razor,  house,  knife,  humming-bird,  chicken,  ounce,  insult, 
aunt,  ox,  ball,  hundred,  African,  hexameter;  interesting  story; 
honest  man ;  humble  cottage. 


i08  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ADJECTIVES. 

816.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

Ex.  —  A  mellow  apple;  a  beautiful  woman;  a  hriUiant  star ;  ^ye 
carriages ;  yonder  mountains  ;  brass  buttons  ;  hoary-headed  men. 
He  is  brave  and  prudent.     To  slight  the  poor  is  mean. 

817.  Words  from  other  parts  of  speech  are  frequently 
used  as  adjectives. 

Ex.  —  A  gold  ring  ;  a  mahogany  table  ;  California  gold ;  she  poli- 
ticians ;  a  tcould-be  scholar  ;  parsing  exercises  ;  the  far-off  future  j 
the  above  remarks  ;  a  farewell  address. 

*'  The  lightnings  flashed  vermilion.^'  —  Dante.     (Were  red.') 

CLASSES    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

818.  Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  chief  classes; 
descriptive  and  definitive, 

819.  A  Descriptive  Adjective  describes  or  qualifies. 

Ex.  —  White,  good.     "  The  green  forest  glowed  in  golden  light.** 

320.  A  Definitive  Adjective  merely  specifies  or 
limits. 

Ex.  —  There  are  many  wealthy  farmers  in  this  country. 

821.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  several  smaller 
classes  ;  namely,  common.,  proper.^  particip'ial,  compound, 
numeral.,  and  pronom'inal. 

This  classification  is  not  strictly  logical,  but  it  is  convenient  and  instructive. 

322.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  adjective 
that  expresses  quality  or  circumstance ;  as,  good^  upper, 
daily. 

823.  A  proper  adjective  is  an  adjective  derived  from 
a  proper  noun  ;  as,  American,  EngUsh.,  Newtonian. 

324.  A  participial  adjective  is  a  participle  used  as  a 
descriptive  adjective.     **  Twinkling  stars."  —  See  p.  221. 


ADJECTIVES.  109 

325.  A  compound  adjective  is  a  compound  word 
used  as  an  adjective.     "  TJticlc-warhled  songs." 

323.  A  numeral  adjective  is  a  definitive  adjective 
that  expresses  number. 

327.  Numeral  Adjectives  are  divided  into  four  class^^ ; 
cardinal^  ordinal^  multiplicative^  and  indefinite. 

1.  A  cardinal  numeral  tells  how  many  ;  as,  one,  Uco. 

2.  An  ordinal  numeral  tells  wliich  one  ;  &s,  first,  second. 

3.  A  multiplicative  numeral  tells  how  many  fold;  as,  single,  double, 

4.  An  indefinite  numeral  expresses  number  indefinitely;  as,  few,  ynan;/. 

328.  Pronominal  adjectives  are  definitive  adjectives 
that  are  sometimes  used  as  pronouns. 

Not  all  the  words  usually  called  pronominal  adjectives,  can  be  used  as  pronouns^ 

329.  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  divided  into  threo 
classes  ;  distrib'utive,  demon!  strative,  and  indefinite* 

1.  The  distributive  relate  to  objects  taken  separatehj. 
Ex.  —  Each,  every,  either,  neither,  many  a.  —  See  p.  80. 

2.  The  demonstrative  point  out  objects  defitnilehj. 

Ex.  —  This,  these,  that,  those,  you,  yonder,  same,  former,  latter. 

3.  The  Indefinite  relate  to  o''jccts  indofinitehj. 

Ex.  —  Any,  other,  another,  one,  both,  all,  some,  such,  several. 

DEGREES    OF    COMP  ARI  S0:N-. 

330.  Comparison  is  that  property  of  adjectives  and 
adverbs  wliich  expresses  quality  in  different  degrees. 

Ex.  —  Lime  is  wJnte  ;  milk  is  wJutcr;  snow  is  the  whitest. 

"  Mules  are  more  liardtj  and  less  expensive  than  horses." 

331.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison;  iho posi- 
tive^ the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

332.  Pcsitivo.  An  adjective  is  in  the  positive  degree, 
when  it  expresses  simply  the  quality ;  as,  Jtard,  good. 

333.  Comparative.  An  adjective  is  in  the  compara- 
tive degree,  when  it  expresses  the  quality  in  a  higher  or 
a  lower  degree;  as,  harder,  less  hard. 


110  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

334.  Superlative.  An  adjective  is  in  the  superlative 
degree,  when  it  expresses  the  qimhty  in  the  highest  or  the 
lowest  degree  ;  as,  hardest,  least  hard. 

The  positive  degree  sometimes  implies  comparison  from  its  syntax, 
but  witliout  referring  to  a  higher  or  a  lower  degree  of  the  same 
quality  ;  as,  "  She  is  as  good  as  he,  and  as  modest  as  she  is  beautiful." 

335.  Tlie  Comparative  Degree  may  imply,  — 

1.  Two  different  objects  with  the  same  quahty. 

Ex. —  Honey  is  sweeter  than  molasses. 

"W.    This  is  the  best  of  any  other. 

The  youngest  of  the  two  sons  is  yet  going  to  school. 

2.  Two  different  conditions  of  the  same  object. 
Ex.  —  A  nation  is  happier  in  peace  than  in  war. 

3.  Two  different  quaHties  in  the  same  object. 

Ex.  —  A  nation  may  be  more  prosperous  than  virtuous. 

Sometimes,  though  seldom  with  elegance,  different  qualities  of  dif- 
ferent objects  can  be  compared  ;  as,  "  My  horse  is  ichiter  than  yours 
is  black:' 

336.  The  Superlative  Degi'eo  usually  implies  three 
or  more  objects  or  conditions ;  and  it  may  refer  simply 
to  the  rest  considered,  or  to  all  others. 

Ex.  —  •'  The  least  of  three  evils." 

"  The  best  peaches  arc  already  taken  from  the  tree*** 
"  The  loceliesl  flowers  were  there."  —  Carljle. 
"  I  am  happiest  at  home."     "  The  river  'u  highest  in  June.** 
Tlie  degree  of  comparison  is  sometimes  estimated  from  so  low  a 
positive  that  it  falls  even  below  a  full  positive  ;  as,  "  Your  claim  is 
better  than  his,  though  neither  is  good'' ;  "Your  largest  horse  is  not 
large:*     And  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  sometimes  estimated 
from  other  comparatives  or  superlatives ;  as,  "  ]\Iy  kite  rose  higher, 
and  higher,  and  higher,  until  it  was  highest,  and  far  higher  than  the 
highest  of  all  the  other  kites." 

"  And  in  the  lowest  depth  a  lou'cr  deep, 
Still  threatening  to  devour  mo,  opens  wide."  —  Milton. 


ADJECTIVES.  Ill 

337.  An  adjective  can  not  be  compared  with  propri- 
ety, when  it  denotes  a  quality  or  property  that  can  not 
exist  in  different  degrees. 

Ex.  —  Equal,  level,  perpendicular,  square,  naked,  round,  straight, 
one,  two,  second,  deaf,  dead,  full,  empty,  perfect,  right,  honest,  sin- 
cere, hollow,  four-footed. 

333.  Good  writers  sometimes  compare  such  adjectives 
^vlicn  they  do  not  take  them  in  their  full  sense. 

Ex. —  "Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." — Addison. 
This  means  that  it  approaches  nearer,  than  the  rest,  to  perfection. 
*' And  love  is  still  an  emptier  name." —  Goldsmith.  Most  qualifying 
adjectives  can  be  thus  used  either  in  a  relative  or  in  an  absolute 
sense. 

32D.  The  positive  is  sometimes  diminished  by  annex- 
ing w-A,  or  by  using  such  words  as  rather,  somewhat, 
sUghtli/,  etc. 

Ex.  —  Black,  llaclisJi ;  somewhat  disagreeable  ;  rather  young. 

340.  A  iiigh  degree  of  the  quality,  without  implying 
direct  comparison,  is  expressed  by  very,  exceedingly,  at- 
moit^  etc. 

Ex.  —  Very  respectfully ;  a  most  valiant  soldier. 

How  Adjectivoo  aro   Compared. 
841.    To  express  degrees  below  the  positive,  we  use 
less  and  least. 
Positive,  good;  comparative,  less  good;  superlative,  least  good. 
Important,  less  important,  least  important, 

342.  To  express  degrees  above  the  positive,  we  annex 
to  it  cr  and  est,  or  place  before  it  more  and  most, 

Ex.  —  rusitive,  rich;  comparative,  richer;  superlative,  richest. 

Deep,  deeper,  deepest;  cheerful,  more  cheerful,  most  cheerfid. 
"Which  of  these  methods  should  be  used,  depends  chiefly  on  the 
Bound  of  the  word,  or  on  the  number  of  its  syllables. 

343.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared  by  an- 
nexing er  for  the  comparative,  and  est  for  the  superlative. 


112  ENGLISH  GRAimAR. 

Large,  larger,  largc.sf ;  sad,  sacWer,  sadr7<?.<!^;  dry,  drier,  dnest. 

"While  studying  this  section,  the  pupil  should  review  the  Rules  for  Spelling,  pp.  50,  51. 

344.  Adjectives  of  two  syllables,  ending  with  le  or  ?/, 

or  accented  on  the  second  syllable,  are  also  compared  by 

annexing  cr  and  est. 
Able,  abler,  ablest;  lovely,  lovelier,  loveliest;  polite,  politer,  politest 
A  few  other  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  especially  thbse  which  end 

in  a^owcl  or  a  liquid  sound,  are  sometimes  compared  by  er  and  est; 

as,  narrow,  narrower,  narrowest;  handsome,  handsomer,  handsomest. 

•'  The  metaphor  is  the  commonest  figure."  —  Blair.    "  Philosophers 

are  but  a  soberer  sort  of  madmen."  — Irving. 

S45(  Other  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  and  all  adjec- 
tives of  more  than  two  syllables,  are  compared  by  placing 
more  and  most  l^efore  the  positive. 

Loyal,  more  loyal,  most  loyal;  evident,  more  evident,  most  evident, 
"W.  It  was  the  beautifullest  and  curiousest  thing  I  ever  saw. 

346.  Some  words  are  expressed  in  the  superlative  de- 
gree by  annexing  most  to  them. 

Ex.  —  Yoramost,  utmost  (outmost),  inmosf,  innermost,  hindmost. 

347.  3Iore  and  most  can  sometimes  be  used  in  com- 
paring any  word  that  admits  of  comparison, 

Xx.  —  "Afoot  mo7-e  light,  a  step  more  true, 

Ne'er  from  the  heath-flower  dashed  the  dew.'*  —  Scott. 

When  several  adjectives  come  together,  of  which  some  are  prop^ 
erly  compared  by  er  and  est,  and  others  by  more  and  most,  the  smaller 
are  generally  placed  first,  and  all  are  compared  as  one,  by  more  and 
most ;  as,  "  The  more  nice  and  elegant  parts."  —  Johnson.  "  llomer'a 
imagination  was  by  far  the  most  rich  and  copious."  —  Pope.  , 

348.  Mo7'e,  most,  less,  and  least,  when  used  to  compare  other 
words,  are  usually  parsed  separately,  and  as  adverbs. 

It  does  not,  however,  seem  to  us  improper,  to  parse  the  whole  phrase  as  one  word. 

349.  Those  adjectives  which  can  not  be  compared  by 
means  of  a  general  rule,  are  said  to  be  irregular. 


ADJECTIVES. 


113 


Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 
best. 


■worst 


Good, 

better, 

Bad, 

7 

111, 

worse, 

Evil, 

) 

Much, 
Many, 

\ 

more, 

Little, 

less. 

Fore, 

former. 

Hind, 

hinder. 

Far, 

flvrther, 

most. 

least. 
(  foremost, 
1  first. 

hindmost. 

farthest. 

furthest. 


Positive, 

(Out,) 

Near, 

Late 

Old, 


Comparative.  Superlative. 
upper,        uppermost. 
^  inmost, 
i  innermost. 
(  outmost, 
°"^^^^      )  utmost, 
(^^^^^'')    (uttermost. 
(  nearest, 
(  next. 
( later,       ( latest, 
(.  latter,      ( last. 
(  older,       (  oldest, 
i  elder,       (  eldest. 


inner. 


nearer, 


(Forth,)     further, 

Elder  and  eldest  arc  applied  to  persons  only  ;  older  and  oldest,  to 
persons  or  things.  Later  uui  latest  refer  to  time ;  latter  and  last, 
generally  to  order  in  place. 

Lesser  is  sometimes  used  for  less ;  as,  ♦*  Lesser  Asia"  5  better,  "  Asia  Minor." 

350.  Some  irregular  adjectives  have  no  positive. 

Ex.  —  Nether,  nethermost ;  under,  undermost ;  hither,  hithermost. 

351.  Some  irregular  adjectives  have  no  comparative. 
Top,  topmost ;  head,  headmost ;  southern,  southernmost. 

S52.  Some  irregular  adjectives  have  neither  positive 
nor  superlative. 

Ex.  —  Minor,  major,  junior,  senior,  interior,  exterior,  anterior, 
posterior,  superior,  inferior,  prior,  ulterior.  —  See  p.  214. 

353,  Most  compound  adjectives  are  compared  by  va- 
rying only  the  descriptive  word,  and  in  the  usual  way* 
Ex.  —  Long-headed,  Zor7<7cr-headed,  lonffest-headed. 
Good-natured,  6c«er-natured,  Se^^-natured. 


Adjectives  that  have  ITumber, 

354.  Some  adjectives  have  number. 
Ex.  —  This,  these ;  that,  those ;  few ;  many. 


114  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

355.  One^  each^  every ^  either^  neither,  many  «,  this,  that, 
another,  much,  all  (the  whole),  and  whole  (all  the),  are 
singular. 

Ex.  —  "  Every  creature  loves  its  like." 

"  Neither  combatant  recovered  from  Ids  wounds." 

^^  Everij  four  years  make  an  Olympiad." — Lempriere. 

Sometimes,  as  ia  this  last  example,  the  adjective  relates  to  an  aggregate  of  objects. 

356.  The  numerals  above  one,  and  the  words  these, 
those,  all  (number),  few,  several,  many,  divers,  and  sun- 
dry,  axe  plural. 

357.  Adjectives  that  imply  number,  must  agree  in  this 
respect  with  the  substantives  to  which  they  belong. 

Ex.  —  Four  feet ;  not,  f@ur  foot.  "  That  kind  of  trees  " ;  or,  "  Trees 
of  that  kind  " ;  not,  "  Those  kind  of  trees." 

W.  I  never  liked  those  sort  of  bonnets.    Three  cord  of  wood. 


358.  The  substantive  to  which  the  adjective  belongs, 
is  sometimes  understood. 

Ex.  —  "  She  is  using  the  new  hook  in  stead  of  the  old**  [iooZ:]. 

359.  An  adjective  sometimes  becomes  a  noun,  — 

1.  To  denote  the  quality  abstractly. 
Ex.  —  "  Burke  wrote  on  the  beautiful.** 

2.  To  denote  some  object  distinguished  by  the  quality. 
Ex.  —  "A  home  on  the  rolling  deep.** 

3.  To  denote  a  class  of  persons  distinguished  by  the 
quality. 

Ex.  —  "  Providence  rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  lad.** 

360.  Sometimes  it  is  necessaiy  to  supply  a  noun. 

Ex.  —  "  The  truly  good  "  {^persons}.  The  adverb  truly  can  modify 
good  as  an  adjective,  but  not  as  a  noun.  "  Nearly  all  [the  soldiers] 
were  captured."    "  The  tender  and  helpless  "  Ichildren']. 


ADJECTIVES.  115 

Pronominal  and  other  Definitive  AcJjectives. 

All  ;  number  or  quantity.     "  All  men."     "  All  the  land."  [salt  ?  " 

Any ;  indefinite,  opposed  to  no7ie.    "  Any  one  niay  go."     "  Have  you  any 

Both  ;  the  turo.     "  Both  horses  are  lame." 

Divers  ;  several  or  mant/  and  different.     "  Divers  phiJoophers  think  so." 

Each  ;  two  or  more  considered  separately.   "  Each  glove."   **  Each  pupil." 

Either ;  one  or  the  other  of  two.     "  Take  either  road." 

Else  ;  besides.     "  Any  one  else."     "  Who  else  ?  " 

Every  ;  all  of  many  considered  separately.     "  Every  hour  of  the  day." 

Few  ;  a  comparatively  small  number.  "  Feic  sh.all  part  where  many  meet.'* 

Fonner  ;  preceding  in  place  or  time.     "  The  former  rule."     "  A  former 

[Latter;  following  in  place  or  time.     "  The  latter  jyosiiion."  [notice'* 

liittle;  not  much.   "  Little  money."    (Li«/e,  meaning  small,  is  a  descriptive 

Many ;  a  comparatively  large  number.  —  See  Few.  [adjective.) 

Many  a  ;  many  considered  separately ;  to  many  as  every  to  cUl.    "  Many  a 

Much;  a  comparatively  large  quantity.    "  i)/«<.7j  money."  [flower." 

Neither ;  not  the  one  nor  the  other.     "  Neither  of  my  gloves." 

No  ;  not  any,  not  a.     "  No  ice."     "  He  is  no  friend  of  mine." 

None ;  no  one,  no  ones.     "  None  is  needed."     "  None  are  needed." 

One ;  a  person  or  thing  indelinitely  considered,  opposed  to  otiier.     "  One 

man  or  another." 
Other,  another ;  something  different  or  distinct.    **  Some  other  person." 
Own  ;  possession  with  emphasis  or  distinction.     "  My  own  book." 
Same;  identity,  similarity.    "  The  same  boat."   "  Built  of  the. so/nc  stones." 
Several ;  more  than  two  and  fewer  than  many.     "  Several  boys." 
Some;  indefinite,  and  opposed  to  all  or  a  particular  one.     "Some  of  the 

robbers."     **  Some  one  said  so." 
Such ;  the  same  as  something  else  mentioned  or  described.    "  Such  a  man 
is  he."     "  Such  writers  as   Swift."     This  adjective  is  descriptive  as 
well  as  definitive  ;  and  it  is  often  a  sort  of  pro-ad jcctive. 
Sundry ;  emphatically  more  than  one  or  two.   "  Sundry  foes  assailed  me." 
That,  those ;  distant  or  absent  in  time  or  place,  the  more  remote  of  two,  the 
first-mentioned,  something  indefinitely  selected  but  definitely  described. 
This,  these ;  near  or  present  in  time  or  place,  the  nearer  of  two,  the  last- 
mentioned. —  See  p.  80. 

"That  affair  about  which  we  talked  yesterday."      "This  affair 

about  wJiich  you  arc  now  talking."     "  This  chair  is  better  than  that." 

"  Those  pufi'ls  who  were  absent,  will  please  to  give  their  names." 

Very  ;  equivalent  to  a  compound  personal  pronoun.   "  Our  very  existence." 

What,  which;  interrogaiive  or  responsive       "  IVhat  mua."      "  Which 

man." 
Yon  or  yonder  points  oat  sotnething  in  sight.     "  Yonder  hill." 


116 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Exercises. 

The  acljcct'tve,  and  why  ;  wlieiher  descriptive  or  dejinitive,  and  why  ;  and  to 
tchat  it  belongs  :  — 

The  blue  sky.  The  sky  is  blue.  An  aspiring  man.  The 
Americi^n  flag.  The  star-powdered  galaxy.  A  modest  and 
beautiful  woman,  with  eyes  bright,  blue,  and  alTectionate.  This 
is  a  broad,  deep,  clear,  and  winding  river.  The  night  grew 
(darker  and  darker.  The  apples  boiled  soft.  He  is  asleep. 
That  field  has  been  in  cultivation  four  years.  The  first  car  is 
not  full,  having  but  one  man  in  it. 

Compare,  of  the  following  adjectives,  those  which  can  be  compared:-— 

'Wise,  studious,  near,  good,  evil,  melodious,  high,  tuneful, 
saucy,  eloquent,  expressive,  lovely,  nimble,  late,  many,  much, 
few,  little,  old,  glowing,  accomplichcd,  expert,  half-finished,  full, 
counteifeit,  gi-aceful,  -worthless,  bottomless,  fundamental,  orna- 
mental, vernal,  green,  shiggisli,  sunburnt,  free,  first. 

Mention  and  apell  the  three  degrees  of  comparison:-— 

Strong,  weak,  light,  gay,  rough,  nice,  coarse,  fierce,  white, 
ripe,  thin,  slim,  dim,  fit,  hot,  fat,  glad,  big,  droll,  dry,  sprightly, 
manly,  gentle,  noble,  idle,  discreet,  remote,  sublime,  profound. 

Compare  ly  using  less  and  least  :  — 

Inroad,  convenient,  confident,  oily,  troublesome,  thick,  joyful, 
Borrowful,  exorbitant,  exact,  indulgent,  handsome. 

Join  suitable  adjectives  to  each  of  the  following  nouns:  — 

IMoon,  field,  fountain,  trees,  garden,  horse,  willow,  man,  wo- 
man, pen,  ink,  day,  wood,  boys,  thoughts,  feelings,  conduct. 


QTIESTIOITS   FOB  EEVIE-W. 


1.  What  Is  a  Part  of  ST)eech  1      .  IT  157 

2.  How  many  and  wliat'are  the  parts 

of  speech? 158 

8.  What  is  a  TTonn  T    Give  examples.  159 
4'  Into  what  classes   arc  nouus   di- 
vided?        163 

6.  What  is  a  proper  noun  ?  ,         .         .  ltJ4 

6.  Wlien  doc.n  a  proper  louu  become  a 

common  doub?        .        .        .        165 

7.  What  is  a  eowiwon  »)0Hn?       .        .  16(5 

8.  When  does  »  common  noun  becomo 

a  pi«pvr  u(<uu  ?        ...       167 


9.  What  smaller  cTasFes  do  the  com- 
mon nouus  include? 

10.  V>ha.tU&  colli  cUvenoitn?      .        .11? 

11.  What  in  sm  absirart  naitn  ^  .        1J9 

12.  What    is    a    verbal   or  participial 

nouaf 170 

13.  What  is  a  Frononn  1  .       171 

14.  What,  is  the  auUceJent  of  a  pro- 

noun?      173 

15.  Into  what  classes  are  pronouns  di- 

vided?       177 

10.  What  is  a  pergonal  pronoun  T         .  178 


QUESTIONS. 


117 


17.  Mention  the  chief    personal  pro- 

nouus?      

18.  Wliat  is  snid  of  ynn,  yours,  etc.  ?     . 

19.  What  id  said  ol    thuu,  thy,  thine, 

etc  ? 

20.  Of  oins,  yours,  etc.  ?        .        .        . 

21.  or  // .'  ....        1S4, 

22.  What  is  a  compound  personal  pro- 

noun ? 

23.  How  are  these  pronoun'' used? 

24.  \*  hat  is  a  rtlnlicf  pronoun  ? 

25.  Wenrion  the  relative  proiiounp  ? 

26.  To  what  is  the  r.-lative  who  apfilied  ? 

27.  To  what  id  the  lelutive  u/atA  up- 

plit'd  ? 

28.  11' w  iri  the  relative  tvhnt  used? 

2'J.  When  is  the  relative  tluxt  preferred 

to  who  or  which.' 
SO.  When  is  as  a  relaiivo  pronoun  ? 
31.  What  is  a,  coriipounU  niatice  pro- 

noun  ? 

82.  Vi'hatisan  intrrros^ntive  pronoun? 
S3.  Mention  the  ii)terro;^ative  )>ron<'un8. 
81.  AVhat  is  baid  of  the  iuierrogativo 

v:ho? 

85.  What  is  sail  cf  the  interrogative 

irhich? 

S3.  Wh.it  13  said  of  the  interrogative 

what  ? 

87.  What  is  a  rffponsh-e  or  an  indirect 

intfrrogatne  pronoun?    . 
83    Whafis  an  o//;Vc(/f?  pronoun? 
S3.  Into  what  rlas.-^es  are  the  adjective 

pronouns  divided  .'    . 

40.  A\  hat  i.s  said  of  the  distributive  pro- 

nouns? ...  .         . 

41.  Of  the  dfnwnstrativf  pronouns  ? 

42.  0(  the  int/fjinite  pronouns?     . 

43.  Odhc  reciprocal  pronouns? 

44.  llow    should    eiihtr,    ntithrr,   each 

oihfr,  and  one  another  be  used  ?    . 

45.  IIow  shou'.d  t/ils  aud  that  I  o  used  ? 
43.  What  properties  have   nouns  and 

pronouus I        .        .        .         . 

47.  WhatisGen^^crl  .  .  .  . 
43.  How  many  g'-ndcrs  are  there,  and 

what  are  they  called  ? 
40.  When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the 

masculine  gauler? 
50,  Of  the  fttninine  gender  ?    , 
61.  Oi  t\\Q  common  gfndrr?  . 
bLOfthcneutfTgendfr? 

53.  What  is  said  of  personified  objects? 

54.  AVhcn  is  the  masculine  gender  pre- 

ferred?    

55.  'W  hen  is  the  feminine  gender  pre- 

f.rrel?      ... 

53.  V.  hat  is  said  of  the  gender  of  col- 
lective nouns? 

67.  U  nv  mai'y  nietliods  are  there  of  dis- 
tlnsuishirg  the  two  flexes?    , 

53.  What  is  the  first  ujetiiod  ?  Give 
e.XMHiplea. 

59.  What  is  the  second  method?  Give 
examples. 

CO.  What  is  the  third  method?  Give 
csamploa. 


161. 
179  62. 

1801 

G3. 
181 1 
182  64. 
IcJu  Go. 

18-j  ,.- 

188'  3 

191 ' 

193  i 
li>6 

197 
19.'^ 
199 


74. 

201 


203  i 


2051 
20G 

2o;! 

20S 
2ul 

21  f 


What  Is  Person  1  •  •  •  .228 
How   many   per.-ona    in   grammar, 

and  what  are  they  called?  .  229 
When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the 

^fir.st  person? 230 

Of  thti  sr^rimd  prrson?  .        .        231 

Of  the  third  person  ?        .        .        .  232 

What  is  Number  T   ...      234 

llosv  many  numbers  in  grammar, 
aiid  what  are  they  calleil .'    .        .  235 

Wh«'n  i.s  a  noun  or  pr^-uoun  of  the 
singular  vuiiibtr?     .         .         .         233 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the 
plural  nutnhtr?      ....  237 

W  hen  is  a  proper  noun  made  plu- 
ral ? 2C3 

What  rcuns  are  generally  nsed  in 
the  singular  nunibir  only  ?  .        .  289 

What  exeeption  is  mentioned  ?  .        240 

Mention  some  r.ouns  that  are  gen- 
erally u^ud  only  ia  the  plural 
r.uniler 241 

Mention  Fome  roiins  that  have  the 
Fan)e  form  for  either  nuuil  er  .        243 

W  hat  is  said,  in  resrard  to  i  mm  her, 
of  pair,  dozen,  fisli,  ftH,  trout, 
salmon,  and  ^in  iar  words  ?     244.  etc. 

When  is  a  (oIIch  live  noun  Miigul  r  ?  245 

Whenisarol.eciiveui  un  plura  ?  246,  '7 

liow  are  most  utmns  n  ade  plural '.  248 

'io  what  r.ouns  is  f.t  added?    .        .249 

lIow  are  proper  nouns  mude  plural  ? 
Give  examples .        .        .        .        251 

What  is  the  plunil  of  foot,  a  part 
of  the  body  ;  and  of  Foot,  a,  mau's 
rau;e  ? 

Give  the  plural  of  he'f,  half,  haf, 
wife,  ami  wolf;  aid  tell  u.s  what 
is  fiaid  Of  sucli  words.    .        .        .  253 

Give  the  plural  of  man,  tonth,  and 
mouse  :  and  leil  us  \vh:it  is  sud  of 
8uch  words       ....        253 

Give  the  plurals  of  brother,  die, 
genius,  and  penny;  and  tell  us 
V. hat  is  sail  of  such  wor.is    .        .  254 

IIow  are  most  compound  words 
made  plur  d  ?   .        .        .        .        2.55 

V.'liat  exceptions  ?  .         .    25T,  258 

IIow  is  a  nime  that  begins  with 
the  title  Mr.,  Miss,  or  Dr.  made 
plural? 259 

What  is  Kiid  of  the  title  Mrs.  ?  .        260 

What  is  said  of  tiie  plural  of  foreign 
words?  261 

What  is  said  of  the  ending  a  ?  Give 
examples. 

Of  the  ending  us?  Give  examples. 

Of  the  emJing  urn  or  on  ?   Kxauiplts. 

Of  t!ie  ending  is  ?    E.xamplts. 

Of  the  cndinc;  x or  rx  ?   I'ximples. 

IIow  are  letters  and  figures  made 
plural?  2G2 

AVhat  is  said  of  the  editorial  we  ?       2o3 

What  is  said  of  7/om,  your,  etc.,  in 
regard  to  number  ?  .        .        264 

What  is  .said  of  relative  and  other 
proaouQS;  ia  regard  to  number  ?    267 


118 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


100. 
101. 
102. 

103. 

104. 
106. 
106. 

107. 
108. 

lOD. 

110. 

111. 

112. 
113. 
Hi. 
115. 
IIG. 
117. 
118. 
119. 

120. 
121. 

122. 

123. 

124. 
125. 
126. 


"WTintiaCasel  (127. 

llo\r  iiiiiny  Ciises  nre  there,   and  I'iS. 

What  are  tiny  called?  .  .  .  2G9  l^U. 
When  is  a  noun  or  prououu  ia  the  130. 

nominative  case?  .  .  270  271131. 
In  what  different  wajs  is  a  noun 

or  pronoun    used    iudependent- 

h  ? 


1132. 
272 

,1.33. 

273  131. 

135. 


When  is  n  noun  or  pronoun  U3ed 
absolutely  ? 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the    _  | 
fwssesx'i'f.  cftse?      .        .        .        274  J33 

IIow  i.s  the  pos.-eosive  case  regular-         |  y^j 
ly  formed  ' 2751 

When  is  the  apostrophe  only  a  Ided,  133 

or  when  is  the  possessive  .<  omit-         'jyg 
ted?         ....        276, 2771 140! 

In  what  other  wayi  can  possession 
be  expressed?       ....  278  141. 

How  is  a  compound  or  complex  142. 

term  expressed  iu  the  possessive         1 140 
rase? 280  J^^' 

What  is  said  of  a  pair  or  series  of  j^^ 
terms  implying  comuion  posses- 
sion?        281 

W^hat  is  sai  I  of  a  pair  or  series  of 
terms  not  implying  common  pos- 
session?         282 

When  13  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
objtctice  case  ?         .         .         . 


14a. 


When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
same  cane  as  another  ?  .         .  28G 

What  may  the  suboidiuato  term 
be?         .  ...        287 

AVhat  two  kinds  of  construction 
under  same  case?        .        .        .  288 

When  is  the  explanatory  term 
pre(Jirnteti  of  the  oiner .'        .        289 

A\'hat  is  said  of  the  connecting 
verb? 290 

When  are  the  two  terms  in  apposi- 
tion?       291 

Mu.st  the  terms  agree  in  anything 
el-c  than  ea^e  ?     .  .        .  295 

In  what  different  ways  are  words 
in  appo.'-ition  sometimes  applied 
to  the  same  objects?        .        .        296 

In  what  two  cases  are  compound 

personal  pronouns  used  ?  .  .  298 
What  is  said  of  who,  what,  which, 

and  that,  in  regard  to  case  and 

declension  ?  .  .  .  .  300 
When  may  what  have  two  cases  ?  .  301 
\Vhen   does  what  have  but   one 

case? 3t>3 

IIow  are  one,  other,  and  another 

decliii.^d  ? 304 

Wliat  is  it,  to  decline  a  noun  or 

pronoun?  ....  305 
Decline  vurrhant,  child,   I,  thou, 

yuii,  /i«,  sAc,  o»e,  «,  who,  and 

hinutdf. 


149. 

283  ^^• 

151. 


What  is  an  A^t'cle?     .        .  306 

How  are  the  nrtii  les  classifled? 
How  is  tiie  used .'       .        .         .        307 
How  is  a  or  an  used  ?    .        .        .  310 
Does  a  or  un  ineuu  one,  or  more 

than  one?  ....  311 
Why  are  o  and  an  l>oth  considered 

the  same  word  .'  .  .  .  .  312 
Wiien  8  lould  a  be  used?  .  .  313 
When  slioiiid  an  be  u^ed  ?  .  .  314 
\Vheu  should  uo  uriitle  be  used?  .  315 

AVhat  is  an  Ac'j  ^Ot' V3  ?        •  316 

Into  what  two  i-(,ief  classes  arc  ad- 

ji'ctives  divided  ?  .  .  .  S'8 
Wiiat  is  a  dfsrriptive  a'ljertlvf  ?  .  319 
What  is  a  defmiiive  n'/j^rtit'e  ?  3:i0 
Into  what  smaller  classes  are  ad- 
jectives divided? .  .  .  .321 
Wiiat  is  a  roinmon  a'fjrctive  ?  .  322 
WiViit  IS  II propt-r  a  Ijerll re?  .  .323 
What  is  a  pnrtirlpiul  ailjfrtive  ?  324 
Waat  is  a  coinpoutxl  mljtrtire  ?  .  325 
Whdt  iA&ninnfrnlniljntive?  .  323 
Into  what  classes  are  numerals  di- 
vided ? 327 

W'hat  arc  pron'^nilnnl  (nlj^nivcs  ?   328 
Into  what  classes    are    they    di- 
vided?     329 

What  is  romparisnn  in  gnimmar?  330 
How  many  degrees  of  comparison, 

and  what  are  they  called.'  .  .  331 
When  is  an  adjective  in  the  posi' 

live  degree  ? 332 

When,  in  the  comparative  degree?  3.33 
Whtu-  in  the  superlative  degree  ?  334 
What  is  said  of  the  comparative 

degree? 3.35 

Of  the  superlative  desrroe?  .  .333 
When   can    an   adjei-tive    not    he 

compared  ?  What  exception  ?  337,  333 
To  expre.-8  degrees  lielow  the  posi- 
tive, how  are  adjectives  compare  I?  311 
To  express  degree-!  above  the  posi- 
tive, how  are  adjectives  compared?  312 
When  are  the  eudings  er  and  fit 

prefen-ed?       .         .         .        343,314 
Wiien  are  more  and  moM  preferred .'  3l5 
Compare  e:ooil,  had,  nntrh,  niany, 
little,  hind,   far,   in,  near,  lati\ 
old ;  and  tell  us  what  is  said  of 
suh  words.        .        .        .    346,319 
Do  adjectives  have  number?  .        .  3j4 
Mention  some  adjectives  tliat  are 
singular,  and  some  that  are  plu- 
ral ?         .        .        .  355. 353 
Whit  U  sai  1  of  adj-'cfiv^s  in  n-u'arl 
to  Mu-ir  ai;re«'meiit  wit.i  subst;iu- 
tives  in  numlH'r  ?          .  3.57 
Is  the  suhsrantive  to  which  the  ad- 

je<tii'e  relate-!,  always  exi)res«'d  ?  358 
Wlien  does  iiu  adjective  become  a 

noun? 359 

Define  rnrh,  every,  eilhir,  neither^ 
t/iis,  and  iJiat. 


VERBS. 


119 


VERBS.       . 

SGI.  A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  act  or 
state  of  a  subject. 

Ex.  —  The  horse  ran.     The  rose  blooms.     lie  icas  elected. 

CC2.  Frequently,  a  verb  consists  of  two  or  more 
words. 

Ex.  —  They  migJd  have  been  captured,     lie  was  sent  for. 

SS3.  Sometimes  words  from  other  parts  of  speech  are 
made  verbs. 

Ex.  —  "We  have  tried  to  better  our  condition."  —  Slmkespearc^ 
«'  This  out-IIerods  Herod  ! "  —  Id.     "  I  'il  fovtune-lelL  you ! "  — Id. 

For  exercises,  see  Part  I. ;  p.  22,  for  instance. 


Verbs. 


Principal, 
Auxiliary. 


Mood. 


Classification 

In  Pokm. 

Rconliu*, 
Irregular. 

In  Syntax. 

A3  related  to  Sutj sets. 
Finite  or  Pred- 
icate Verbs. 
Not  Finite,        Prop- 
Participles,       erties. 
Infinitives. 

A3  related  to  Olj ects. 
Transitive, 
Intransitive. 

As  related  to  one  an- 
other. 


f  Active, 
VOICE,  i  ,j       . 

1 1  assive 


Tense. 


Indicative, 
Subjunctive, 
Potential, 
,  Imperative. 

Present, 
Present-perfect ; 
Past, 

Past-perfect ; 
Future, 
Future-perfect. 


f  First, 
^^^^'     Second, 
^"^-    [Third. 

NuM-  I  Singular, 
BEE.    I  Plural. 


120  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 
Regular  and  Irregular. 

8S4.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  form,  into 
regular  and  irregular, 

3G5.  A  Regular  Verb  is  a  verb  that  takes  the  ending 
ed^  to  form  its  past  tense  and  its  perfect  participle. 

'    Ex.  —  Present,  ^/an< ;  nast^  planted ;  perfect  participle,  pi'anfcrf. 
Carry,  carri  ed,  carri  ed ;  rebel',  rebel  led,  rebel  led. 
WLQe  studyiug  this  section,  review  the  llules  for  Spelling,  pp.  50  and  51. 

368.  An  Irregular  Verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  take 
the  ending  ed,  to  form  its  past  tense  and  its  perfect  jiarti- 
ciplc. 

Ex. —  Sweep,  swept,  swept;  cling,  cluncf,  clung ;  cut,  cut,  cut. 

3S7.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the  j^resent 
tense^  the  past  tense,  the  present  participle,  and  the  perfect 
participle. 

These  are  called  the  prixcipal  pakts,  because  by  means  of  them 
and  the  auxiliary  verbs  all  the  other  parts  of  the  verb  can  be  formed. 

868.  The  Present  Tenso  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 
verb ;  as,  go, 

369.  The  Pasi:  Tcnso  is  the  simplest  form  that  ex- 
presses a  past  fact ;  as,  we7it. 

370.  The  Present  Participle  is  that  form  which  ends 
always  with  ing ;  as,  go-ing.  It  is  therefore  so  well 
known  that  it  hardly  needs  mentioning. 

371.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  that  form  which 
makes  sense  with  the  word  having  before  it ;  as,  gone, 
(having  gone). 

In  general,  only  the  simple  participles  are  used  In  compound  forms.  —  See  p.  158. 


VEKBS, 


121 


The  present  tense  and  the  past  ten«!e  which  we  have  just  men- 
tioned, are  the  present  indicative  or  infinitive  and  the  past  indicative. 
For  the  sake  of  brevity,  they  are  generally  called  simply  the  present 
and  thoj)ast;  and  the  past  is  sometimes  called  the  pret'eriL 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

The  following  are  the  irregular  verbs,  with  their  principal  parts.  Having 
learned  them,  the  pupil  will  also  know  the  principal  parts  of  the  remain- 
jtig  verbs,  for  these  are  regular.  He  must  not  infer,  however,  from  the 
word  irregular^  that  the  verbs  so  called  are  a  mere  straggling  offshoot  from 
the  language ;  for  they  are  really  the  very  core  or  pith  of  it. 


The  Two  Past  Forms  Different.* 


Trescnt.  Past, or  Pret.  Per/.  Participle. 

Arise,       arose,        arisen.f 

awaked, 

Awake,    awoke,  r.,        ,    ^ 

'  '     '  awoke.* 


Be  or  am,  was. 
Bear         bore, 

{bring  forth},\yrj^j,Q^ 

Bear         bore, 

(.carry), 

Beat,        beat. 


been, 
born. 

borne. 

beaten, 
beat. 


Become,  became,  become. 
Befall,  befell,  befallen, 
begot,        begotten, 


Beget, 
Begin, 
Bid, 


began, 

bid, 

bade, 


begot, 
begun, 
bid,      ^ 
bidden. 


Present,  Past,  or  Pret.  Per/.  Participle^ 

bitten, 

''"'      bit. 

blew,         blown. 

broke,        broken, 

brake,*     broke.* 

chidden, 
chid. 


Bite, 

Blow, 

Break, 


Chide, 

Choose,     chose. 
Cleave       cleaved, 


{adhere), 

Cleave 

{split). 

Come, 
Crow, 


clave,* 

cleft, 

clove, 

clave,* 

came, 

crowed, 

crew. 


chid, 
chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 
cloven, 
cleaved, 
come. 

crowed. 


*  In  general,  only  those  irregular  verbs  are  liable  to  be  used  improperly,  of  which  the 
pant  tense  and  the  perfect  participle  are  different  in  form.  These  verbs  have  there- 
fore been  given  first,  and  separate  from  the  rest,  that  they  may  be  learned  j>erfectly.  It. 
denotes  that  the  regular  form  mwy  also  be  used  in  stead  of  the  other.  *  denotes  that  the 
form  under  it  is  seldom  used,  beinf?  either  ancient,  poetic,  or  of  late  introduction.  Tlie 
form  supposed  to  be  of  t!ie  best  present  usage,  is  placed  first.  The  second  form  of  some 
verbs  is  preferable  when  applied  in  a  certain  way,  as,  ^'freighted  with  spices  and  silks," 
'^'■fraught  with  mischief"  ;  "  thundera^rMcA,"  "sorrow-s/ricAcn."  —  Commit  tu  memory 
the  unmarked  forms  only, 
\  The  pupil  may  also  mention  the  present  participle  just  before  he  mentions  the  perfect 

,6 


122 


ENGUSH    GRAMMAR. 


Present.  Past,  or  Pret.  Per/.  Participle. 
Dare         durst, 

(venture),      dared,  ^^^^^'       ^ 

(Dare,  to  challenge ;  regular.) 
Do  did,  done. 

(prin.  verb.), 

Draw,       drew,        drawn. 

drunk, 
Drink,      drank,       ^^.^^^j,^ 

Drive,       drove,  driver 

ate,  eaten, 

■^^^  eat,  eat* 

Fall,         fell,  fallen. 

Fly,  flew,  flown. 

Forbear,  forbore,  forborne. 

forgotten, 
Forget,     forgot,       ^^^.^^^^ 

Forsake,  forsook,     forsaken. 

Freeze,     froze,         frozen. 

freighted, 
Freight,    freigl^ted,  ^^^^^^^j^j^ 

„  got, 

G^^  g^*'  gotten. 

Give,        gave,         given. 

Go,  went,         gone. 

Grave,      graved,      graven,  r. 

Grow,       grew,         grown. 
heaved,     Jieaved, 

^^^®'      liove,        hoven.* 

Hew,        hewed,      hewn,  k. 

hidden,  >( 

hid. 

held, 
Hold,        held,  j^^,j^^^» 

Know,      knew,       known. 


Hide,       hid. 


Present.  Past,  or  Pret.  Per/.  Participle, 

Lade         laded,        laden,  R. 

(load), 

Lie  lay,  lain, 

(repose), 

(Lie,  (0  speak  false] I) :  regular.) 
Mow,        mowed,     mown,  it- 
proved,  , 


X  rove. 

proveu. 

proven** 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent,  r.* 

Ride, 

rode, 

rode, 
ridden. 

Ring, 

rang, 
rung. 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven,  r.* 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed. 

sawn,  R. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

C  -_il.  - 

seethed, 

seethed, 

^^^^^^^     sod,*         sodden. 

Shake,      shook,       shaken. 

cu  1        1       shaped, 

Shape,      shaped,      ^j^^^^^^,^  ^ 

shaved, 
Shave;      shaved,     ^j^^^^„^ 

sheared, 
'^^^^^>       shore,*       '^^^"°'^- 

Show,       sliowed,  shown,  r. 

shrunk,  shrunk, 

Shrmk,     ^^^^^^^^  shrunken.' 

Slay,         slew,         slain. 

slidden. 
Slide,        slId,R.,      gjj^^^j^^ 

smitten, 
Smite,       smote,       ^^^^ 


VERBS. 


123 


Present.  Past,  or  Pre t.  Per/.  Participle. 


Sing, 
"^  Sink, 


sang, 
sunk, 
sank. 
Sow  sowed, 

(to  scatter  seed), 

spoke, 

spake,* 

spun, 

span,* 

spit, 

spat* 

(Spit,  to  pierce  with  a 

.  sprung, 

*      '^^      sprang. 

Steal,        stole, 

strode, 
btride,        ,  . , 
'       stnd, 

Strike,      struck, 


Speak, 

Spin, 

Spit, 


sunk, 
sown,  R. 

spoken. 

spun. 

spit, 

spitten.* 
spit;  regular.) 

sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck, 

stricken. 


Present. 

Strive, 
Strow, 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 
Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 
Tread, 
Wax 

(grow), 

Y>^car, 

Weave, 

Write, 


Past,  or  Prct.  Per/.  Participle. 

strove,R.,*  striven, R.* 

St  rowed,    strown,  R. 

swore,     ' 

;*     sworn, 
sware,* 

swelled,     swollen,  r. 

swam, 

^^ swum. 

swum, 

took,  taken. 

tore,  torn. 

thrived,     thrived, 

throve,      thriven. 

threw,        thrown. 

trodden, 

trod. 

waxed, 

waxen.* 
wore,         worn, 
wove,  R.,*  woven,  R.* 
■wrote,       wriuen. 


trod, 
waxed, 


The  Two  Past  or  the  Three  Forms  Alike. 


Per/.  Participle. 

abode. 

beheld,      beheld. 

belaid,  r.,  belaid,  r. 

bent,  R.,     bent,  r. 
Bereave,  bereft,  r.,  bereft,  r. 
Beseech,  besought,  besought  , 

bet,  R.,       bet,  r. 

betided,     betided,  \ 

betid,*      betid.* 

bound,       bound. 

bled,         bled. 

blended,    blended, 

blent,*      blent.* 


Preaent.  Pa.it,  or  Prct 

Abide,       abode, 
Behold, 
Belay, 
Bend, 


Bet, 
Betide, 

Bind, 
Bleed, 

Blend, 


Present. 

Bless, 

Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 

Burn, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Clinfif, 


Past,  or  Prct.  Per/.  Participla 

blessed,  blessed, 
blest,    blest. 


bred. 


bred. 


brought,    brought, 
built,  R.,*  built,  R.* 
burned,     burned, 
burnt,        burnt, 
burst,        burst, 
bought      bought. 
cast,  cast. 

caught,R.,*  caught,R. 
clung,        clung. 


124 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Present.  Past,  or  Pret.  i 

Per/.  Participle. 

Present.  Past,  or  Pret. 

Pcrf.  Participle. 

clothed. 

clothed, 

leaned. 

leaned. 

Clothe, 

clad. 

clad. 

Lean, 

leant. 

leant. 

Cost, 

cost. 

cost. 

Leap, 

leaped, 

leaped. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept. 

leapt,* 

leapt.* 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Learn, 

learned. 

learned. 

Deal, 

dealt. 

dealt. 

learnt, 

learnt. 

I)ig, 

dug,  R., 

dug,  R. 

Leave, 

left. 

left.  ^ 

Dwell, 

.  dwelt,  R. 

dwelr,  R. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Dream, 
Dress, 

dreamed 

,  dreamed, 

Let, 

let. 

let. 

dreamt, 
dressed. 

dreamt, 
dressed. 

Light, 

lighted, 
lit, 

lighted, 
lit. 

drest,* 

drest.* 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Mean, 

meant. 

meant. 

Fight, 

fought. 

fought. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Find, 

found. 

found. 

Pass, 

passed, 

passed, 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

past,* 

past.** 

Fling, 

flung. 

flung. 

Pay, 

paid. 

paid. 

Gild, 

gilded, 

gllJed, 

Pen 

penned. 

penned, 

gilt, 

gilt. 

{fence  in). 

pent. 

pent. 

Gird, 

girt,  R., 

girt,  R. 

(Pen,  to  write;  rcgulai 

•.) 

Grind, 

ground, 

grouncL 

pleaded. 

pleaded, 

Hang, 

hung,  R., 

hung,  R.* 

Plead, 

plead,* 

plead,* 

Have 

had. 

had. 

pled,* 

pled.* 

(prin,  verb. 

, 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

Hear, 
Hit 

Hurt, 

heard, 

hit, 

hurt, 

heard. 

hit. 

Iiurt. 

Quit, 
Rap, 

quit,  R., 
rapped, 
rapt. 

quit,  R. 
rapped, 
rapt.° 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R., 

knelt,  R. 

Reave,* 

reft. 

reft. 

Knit, 

knit,  R., 

knit,  R. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Lay, 

laid. 

laid 

Say, 

eaid, 

said. 

Lead, 

led. 

led. 

Seek, 

sought. 

sought. 

(a.)  Tlatif*,  hanpcfl,  hantjf'd  ;  tn  suspend  by  the  neck  with  intent  to  kill ;  but  the 
distinction  is  not  always  observed,  (i  )  Past  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun. 
(c  )  Rap,  rapt,  rapt  •,  to  seize  with  rapture. 


VERBS. 


125 


Present.  Past,or  Pret.  Per/. Participle. 


Sell, 

Seud, 

Set, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sit, 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Stay, 

String, 

Stave, 

Stand, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Sweat, 
Sweep, 


sold,  sold, 

sent,  sent, 

set,  set. 

shed,  shed, 

shone,  R.,*  shone,  R.* 
shod,  shod. 


shot, 

shred, 

shut, 

sat, 

slept. 


shot. 

shred. 

shut. 

sat. 

slept. 


slung, 

slung. 

slunk, 

slunk. 

slit,  R.,* 

slit,  R. 

smelt,  R., 

smelf,  R. 

sped,  R.,* 

sped,  R.* 

spelled. 

spelled, 

spelt, 

spelt. 

spent. 

spent. 

spilt,  R., 

spilt,  R. 

split,  R.,* 

split,  R. 

spoiled, 

spoiled, 

spoilt,* 

spoilt.* 

spread. 

spread. 

staid,  R., 

staid,  R.* 

strung. 

strung,  R.* 

stove,  R., 

stove,  R. 

stood. 

stood. 

stuck. 

stuck. 

stung, 

stung. 

sw5at,  R. 

,  sweat,  R. 

swet. 

swet. 

swept, 

swept. 

Present.  Past^  or  Fret.  Per/.  Participle, 

Swing,      swung,  swung, 

taught,  taught, 

told,  told, 

thought,  thought, 

thrust,  thrust, 

waked,  waked, 

woke,*  woke.* 

wedded,  wedded, 


Teach, 
Tell, 
Think, 
Thrust, 

Wake, 


Wed, 


Weep, 
Wet, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 
Wring, 


wed,* 
wept, 
wet,  R.,* 
won, 
wound, 


(cZ.)  Stay,  stayed,  stayed  5  to  cause 


wed.* 
wept, 
wet,  R.* 
won. 
wound, 
worked,    worked,   NV 
wrought,  wrought, 
wrung,       wrung. 

Beware,  (wanting,)  (wanting.) 

Can,     *        could, 

Do(auxiry),did, 

Have,  "        had. 

May,  might, 

Must,  must,  " 

Ought,  ought,  " 

(wanting,)     quoth,  " 

Shall,  should,         « 

Will,     «       would,  « 

(Will,  wish,  bequeath;  regular.) 

Wit, 

Wot,* 

Wis,* 

Weet,* 

Most  of  the  verbs  that  hare  no 
participles,  are  auxiliary  verbs. 
to  stop,    (e.)  Stringed  instruments. 


wot,*  \ 
wist,*  > 
wote.*  ) 


12(5  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK. 

372.  A  derivative  verb  generally  forais  its  principal 
parts  in  the  same  way  as  the  primitive  verb. 

Ex.  —  Miatake,  mistook,  mistaken;  undergo,  underwent,  undergone. 

373.  'A  Redundant  Verb  is  a  verb  that  has  more 
than  one  form  for  some  of  its  principal  parts. 

Ex.  —  Kneel;  knelt,  kneeled ;  knelt,  kneeled. 

374.  A  Defective  Verb  is  one  that  has  not  all  the 
parts  -vvhicli  belong  to  a  complete  verb. 

The  defective  verbs  are  most  of  the  auxiliaries,  and  the  following  r-^- 

Beware;  from  be  and  ware  [icnrji).     It  has  no  participles. 

DIethinks,  1  think,  mctitought,  /  thouyht ;  meseems,  to  me  I't  seems; 
meseemed,  to  me  it  seenud.     These  words  are  anomalous  and  poetical. 

Ought  is  an  old  preterit  of  owe.  It  is  in  the  present  tense  when  it  is 
followed  by  the  present  infinitive;  as,  **  1  oucjlit  \.o  ^o  "  :  and  in  the  past 
tense  when  followed  by  the  perfect  infinitive  ;  as,  "  I  ou(]ht  to  have  gone," 

Quoth  is  sometimes  used,  in  quaint  or  humorous  language,  for  saidf 
as,  "  '  Not  I,'  qmth  Sancho." 

Wit,  in  the  sense  of  know,  is  yet  used  in  the  phrase  to  wit  —  namely.. 
The  other  forms  are  nearly  obsolete. 

Give  the  principal  parts  i  and  tell  whether  the  verb  is  regular  or  irregular  .•  — 

Flow,  fly,  flee,  sow,  grow,  sin,  win,  spin,  skim,  swim,  heal, 
steal,  fling,  bring,  spread,  dread,  fold,  hold,  uphold,  close,  lose, 
loose,  blind,  find,  fine,  reel,  feel,  lend,  loan,  need,  feed,  land, 
stand,  heat,  eat,  free,  see,  play,  slay,  may,  call,  fall,  fell,  bind, 
bound,  come,  welcome,  hive,  strive,  live,  give,  rise,  raise,  tell, 
toll,  lie,  lay,  seat,  set,  sit. 

Finite  and  Not  Finite. 

375.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  relatfon  to 
subjects,  into  finite  and  not  finite. 

376.  A  rinite  Verb  is  a  verb  that  predicates  the  act 
or  state  of  its  subject. 

Ex.  —  The  plant  grows.     John  lias  arrived.     I  am  alone. 

377.  A  verb  that  is  not  finite,  does  not  predicate  the 
act  or  state  of  its  subject. 

"  The  plant  growing*'  "  John  Tiaving  arrived.**  "  For  me  to  he  alone.' 
Observe  the  difference  between  these  phrases  and  the  preceding  sentences,  T  379. 


VERBS.  127 

378.  Verbs  that  are  not  finite,  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes ;  Infinitives  and  Participles.  —  See  p.  158. 

Transitive   and  Intransitive. 
379»    Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  relation  to 
objects,  into  transitive  and  intransitive. 

380.  A  Transitive  Verb  is  a  verb  that  has  an  object, 
or  requires  one  to  complete  the  sense. 

Ex.  — "The  liglitnlng  struck  the  oak."     (Struck  whatf) 

^''1  knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew**  \liim\.  —  Goldsmith, 

Transitive  verbs  are  used  ia  two  forms.  —  See  Voice,  p.  13. 

381.  An  Intransitive  Verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not 
have  or  require  an  object. 

Ex.  —  Birds  fiij.    Roses  bloom.     Gamblers  cheat. 

382.  An  intransitive  verb  that  does  not  imply  action  op 
exertion,  is  sometimes  called  a  neuter  verb. 

Ex.  -^  The  ocean  is  deep.     The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

383.  The  same  word  is  sometimes  used  as  a  transitive 
verb,  and  sometimes  ix.s  an  intransitive. 

*♦  I'he  prince  succeeds  the  king."     "  In  every  project  he  succeeds.** 

381.  A  verb  usually  transitive  may  become  intran- 
sitive, when  the  chief  design  is  to  set  forth  the  act,  and 
to  leave  the  object  unknown  or  indefinite. 

Ex.  — "  She  reads  well."    "  lie  rides  out  every  day.** 

Observe  that  tlie  design  is  to  show  how  she  reads,  not  what  she  reads. 

385.  A  verb  usually  intransitive  may  become  tran- 
sitive, — 

1.  When  it  is  used  in  a  causative  sense. 

Ex.  —  "  To  march  armies  '* ;  i.  e.,  to  cause  them  to  march. 

2.  When  the  object  is  like  the  verb  in  meaning. 
Ex.  —  "  To  live  a  righteous  life."    "  7>>  die  a  miserable  death.** 

3.  In  certain  poetical  expressions. 

Ex.  —  "  And  eyes  looked  \  love  to  eyes  that  spake  again.** — Byron. 
"  The  lightnings  yfas/icrf  a  brighter  curve."  —  Thomson. 


128  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

4.  In  certain  idiomatic  expressions. 

Ex.  —  "I  laughed  \  wy.se//" hoarse."     "  He  slept  \  himself  weory.** 

la  such  expressions  the  verb  has  both  a  causative  and  a  reflexive  sense. 

388.  Sometimes  the  object  is  combined  with  the  verb 
so  closely  as  to  make  in  sense  almost  a  part  of  it. 

Ex.  —  To  take  care  of;  to  lay  hold  of;  to  bethink  oneself. 

A  similar  remark  applies  sometimes  to  other  words  used  with  verba. 

387.  Some  verbs,  mostly  of  asking  or  teaching,  are 
followed  by  two  objects,  each  of  which  they  can  govern. 

Ex.  —  *•  She  taught  me  grammar " ;  i.  e.,  she  taught  me,  and  she 
taught  grammar.  In  parsing,  however,  it  is  probably  better  to  sup- 
ply a  preposition ;  as,  "  She  taught  grammar  to  me  " ;  or,  *'  She  taught 
me  in  grammar." 

383.  Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objects,  of  which 
one  is  governed  by  the  preposition  to  or  for  understood, 
and  the  other  by  the  verb. 

Ex.  —  '♦  She  gave  me  a  book";  i.  e.,  she  gave  a  book  to  me. 

The  object  governed  by  the  verb  is  called  the  direct  object ;  tho 
object  governed  by  the  preposition  understood,  is  called  the  indirect 
object. 

380,  Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objects  that  are 
in  apposition. 

Ex.  —  "  They  made  him  captain.** —  See  ^  292. 

Principal  and  Auxiliary. 

390.  Verbs  are  divided,  in  regard  to  the  chief  mode 
of  combining  them,  into  principal  and  auxiliary/. 

3D1.  A  Principal  Verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  by 
itself  the  act  or  state,  or  the  chief  part  of  it. 

" He  studies."  "  He  may  have  studied"   Study  is  a  principal  verb. 

302.  An  Auxiliary  Verb  helps  other  verbs  to  ex- 
press their  grammatical  properties. 

Ex.  —  "  lie  was  captured."    (Voice.)     "  He  can  learn."   (Mood.) 

For  an  explanation  of  auxiliary  rerbs,  see  p.  148. 


VERBS.  129 

^  PROPERTIES   OF  VERBS. 

393.  Verbs  have  voice,  mood,  tense,  person,  and  number. 

VOICE. 

S94»  Voice  is  that  property  of  transitive  verbs  which 
showrf  whether  the  subject  does,  or  receives,  the  act. 

395.  There  are  two  voices  ;  the  active  and  the  passive. 

396.  A  transitive  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  when  it 
represents  its  subject  as  acting.     *'IIe  watches^ 

397.  A  transitive  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice,  when  it 
represents  its  subject  as  acted  upon.     "  He  is  watched?'* 

Most  transitive  verbs  imply  action  ;  but  a  few  —  as,  resemhlej  owrij 
and  have  —  do  not  imply  action.  Such  a  verb  is  in  the  actice  voice, 
when  it  relates  to  an  object;  and  in  the  passive,  ■when,  it  has  the 
object  for  its  subject. 

398.  Voice  is  a  property  that  belongs  to  transitive 
verbs  only. 

399.  A  few  intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  used  in 
the  passive  form. 

This  is  a  French  idiom,  and  the  verbs  are  not  passivCv 
Ex.  —  "He  is  fallen"    "She  is  gone''    *' The  melancholy  day^ 
are  corned    Equivalent  to  lias  fallen,  has  gone,  have  come. 

The  passive  form  generally  diflfers  from  the  active  by  an  elegant  shade  of  meaning  :  ia 
the  latter,  the  mind  dwells  on  the  act  5  in  the  former,  on  the  state  of  things  after  the  act. 

400.  A  few  intransitive  verbs  can  be  made  passive, 
when  combined  with  a  preposition  or  other  word. 

The  whole  phrase  should  be  called  a  compound  passive  verb, 
Ex.  —  "  Had  Monmouth  really  been  sent  for  ?  "  —  Macaulay. 

"  Colonel  Butler  was  accordingly  written  to!"  —  Irving.       "i 
So,  "My  claim  wa^  lost  sight  of" ;  i.  c,  disregarded. 
The  modifying  word  is  so  closely  blended  in  seasc  with  the  verb, 
that  it  seems  to  make  a  part  of  it. 

6*  I 


i30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

401.  Transitive  verbs  are  sometimes  passive,  even  In 
the  active  form.  * 

Ex.  —  "This  field  plovglis  -well."  "Your  popm  reads  smoothly.** 
"  Wheat  .«te//N,  is  scllhif/,  is  sold  for  a  dollar  a  bushel."  "  The  fortress 
was  building"  —  luvixo.     And  probably,  "  An  ax  io  grind.'' 

^lost  such  verbs  denote  merely  the  capacity  to  receive  the  act  in 
the  way  specified ;  and  when  this  is  the  meaning,  some  grammarians 
call  them  simply  intransitive  verbs. 

402.  The  object  of  the  active  verb  is  made  the  subject 
of  the  passive. 

We  cauglit  these  partridges.    These  partridges  were  caught  by  us. 

"W".   We  were  shown  some  very  curious  fi^ssil  remains. 

A  verb  is  generally  made  passive  by  combining  the  corresponding 
tense  or  part  of  the  verb  be  with  the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive 
Verb ;  as,  was,  was  broken.     "  The  pitcher  was  broken.'* 

403.  Sometimes  the  object  of  the  preposition  is  made 
the  subject  of  the  passive  verb. 

Ex.  —  "  If  you  wear  that  coat,  people  will  laugh  at  you.** 
"  If  you  wear  that  coat,  you  will  be  laughed  ai^ 
"He  was  smiled  on  Ifacored]  by  fortune." 

404.  ^e  may  use,  at  pleasure,  either  the  active  voice  or 
the  passive.  The  following  are  the  chief  advantages  of  having 
both  forms :  — 

1.  To  enrich  language  in  variety  of  expression. 
Ex.  —  Snow  protects  plants.     Plants  arc  protected  by  snow. 

2.  To  avoid  the  confusion  which  is  apt  to  arise  from 
introducing  different  subjects  into  the  same  sentence. 

Ex.  —  "  I  went  to  the  river,  was  ferried  over,  and  saw  the  proces- 
sion." Make  was  ferried  active  by  introducing  another  subject,  and 
you  can  easily  notice  the  bad  cfiect. 

3»  In  the  active  voice,  to  make  the  doer  and  the  act 
prominent. 

Ex.  —  Washington  defended  our  country. 

4.  In  the  passive  voice,  to  make  the.  result  and  the 
act  prominent,  or  to  avoid  mentioning  the  doer. 


VERBS.  131 

Ex.  —  "The  work  was  done,  neverthelesa.**  "My  watch  was 
stolen."  I  may  not  know,  or  may  not  -vvisli  to  say,  who  stole  it.  "  The 
ship  was  stranded."  It  might  be  very  tedious  to  give  the  causes:  to 
btate  the  result  is  sufficient. 

MOOD. 

405.  IVCood  is  the  manner  in  which  the  act  or  state  is 
expressed  with  reference  to  its  sulyect. 

The  act  or  state  can  be  referred  to  the  subject,  as  something  real ;  as  something 
merely  f-ur posed ;  as  something  real  or  supposed,  and  modified  by  a  relation  ;  as  some- 
thing co/nTnan-Vd;  or  as  something  «M6ordf  na^,  or  merely  assumed  and  not  predicated. 

406.  There  are  four  moods  ;  the  indicative,  the  mb- 
junciive,  the  -potential^  and  the  imperative. 

^If.?t  grammarians  call  the  infinitive  the  infinitire.  mr.od,  thn3  making  five 
moo  Is  j  uiid  some  call  the  parikipU  the  pnrlicipiul  nwod,  tlius  making  six 
mo  )d8.  Infinitives  and  parriciples  may  be  considered  a  mood;  but  it  seems 
to  us  that  they  are  butfioieutly  distujguished  by  beiug^  called  injinilivts  and 
participles. 

Indicative  Mood. 
The  Indicativs  Mood  denotes  what  is  real, 

407.  A  verb  in  the  indicativs  mood  expresses  an  actual 
occurrence  or  fact. 

Ex.  —  I  xcent.    Jt  snows.    "  Moses  was  God's  first  pen.**  —  Bacon. 

4G8.    The  indicative  mood  can  be  used  interrogatively. 

Ex.  — "  '  Is  he  in  the  army,  then  ?  *  said  my  uncle  Toby." —  Sterne, 
Here  an  inquiry  is  made  about  the  fact. 

4C9.  A  doubt,  condition,  or  inference,  assumed  as  a 
fact  or  expressed  in  indicative  time,  must  also  be  in  the 
indicative  mood. 

Ex.  —  JCl  am  deceived,  I  am  mined. 

If  I  was  deceived,  I  did  not  know  it. 
This  will  produce  a  quarrel,  when  he  returns. 
"W.   Thoujrh  he  be  helpless  now,  he  will  not  remain  so.    See  p.  160, 
Which  phrase,  if  it  mean  any  thing,  means  paper-money. — . 

Atlantic  Monthly. 
If  he  "have  a  rival,  It  is  Mrs.  Barbauld.  —  Coleridge. 
She  doubted  whether  this  were  not  all  delusion.  —  Irving. 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 
The  Subjunctive  Mood  denotes  what  is  ideal. 

410.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  may  express,  — 

1.  A  future  contingency. 

Ex.  —  "  If  I  go,  I  shall  go  alone."     "  Beware  lest  thou  fail.** 
W.   If  any  member  absents  himself,  he  shall  pay  a  dollar. 

He  will  maintain  his  suit,  though  it  costs  him  his  whole  estate. 

2.  A  mere  wish  or  supposition. 

*'  O  had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove ! "     But  I  have  not. 
"  O  that  I  were  as  when  my  mother  pressed  me  to  her  bosom,  and 
sung  the  warlike  deeds  of  the  Mohawks  !"     But  I  am  not. 
"  Were  I  in  your  condition,  I  would  remain." 
"  Had  I  been  in  your  condition,  I  would  have  remained.* 
W.    O  that  1  was  at  home.     I  wish  I  was  at  home. 

lie  talked  to  me  as  if  I  was  a  widow. 

Was  there  not  another  reason,  I  would  object.  —  P.  Henry, 

3.  A  mere  conclusion,  conception,  or  consequence, 
Ex.  —  "  It  were  useless  to  resist."     (Would  be.) 

"  He  had  need  all  circumspection."  —  Milton, 

That  is,  he  would  have  need  of  all  circumspection. 

*' If  it  were  done  when  it  is  done,  then  'twei'e  well 

It  were  done  quickly."  —  ShaJ^espeare. 
**  Had  more  time  been  given,  my  translation  had  been  bet- 
ter." —  Dryden. 
Colloqnialism  i  "  I  had  much  rather  he  myself  tho  slave."  —  Coirper. 
To  the  pure  subjunctives   of  conclusion,  good  writers  now  gen- 
erally prefer  the  subjunctive  potential  forms;   as,  would  be,  would 
have  been,  should  be,  etc. 

411.  The  subjunctive  mood,  being  mental,  is  generally 
applied  to  the  suppositions  and  conclusions  in  reasoning 
and  wishing. 

"  Were  half  the  wealth  bestowed  on  camps  and  courts 
Gicen  to  redeem  the  human  mind  from  error, 
There  were  no  need  of  arsenals  and  forts."  —  Zonfjfellow, 
Bince  reasoning  always  implies  two  parts,  a  premise  and  a  conclusion,  — 


VERBS.  138 

A  clause  with  a  subjunctive  verb  either  has  or  implies  another 
clause;  and  hence  the  mood  i:j  caXlad  subjunctive,  which  means  Joined 
dependentlij  to  something  else. 

412.  When  the  subjunctive  mood  refers  to  present  or 
past  time,  it  generally  implies  a  denial  of  the  fact ;  when 
to  future  time,  that  the  fact  is  uncertain  or  contingent. 

This  is  obvious  :  we  can  not  do  a  past  act  ;  we  may  do  a  future  }  aud  a  present  suppo* 
eitioa,  d3veloped  into  reality,  become*  indicative. 

413.  The  subjunctive  mood  uses  he  in  stead  of  am^  are, 
and  is;  were  in  stead  of  was;  and  generally  undergoes  no 
chanoje  of  form  tlirou'^hout  the  same  tense. 

To  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  should  or  some  other  auxiliary 
verb  can  j^enerally  be  understood ;  as,  *'  If  thou  ever  return,  thou 
shouldst  be  thankl'ul "  =  If  thou  shoaldst  ever  return,  thou  shouldst 
be  thankful. 

414.  If^  tliougli^  lest,  unless,  except,  whether,  that,  till, 
or  a  similar  word,  generally  precedes  and  indicates  the 
subjunctive  mood. 

Ex.  —  Jfl  were.    Jfl  had  been. 

415.  By  placing  the  verb  or  its  auxiliary  before  tho 
subject,  tlic  conditional  word  can  generally  be  omitted. 

Ex.  —  Were  /,  for  Ifl  were.     Had  I  been,  for  If  I  had  been. 

410.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  three  tenses:  the 
present,  the  past,  and  the  past-perfect;  which  arc  gen- 
erally equivalent  in  time  to  a  future  tense,  a  present 
tense,  and  a  past  tense. 

Present  (Future,  Jn  time)  •  "if  he  be  at  home,  I  shall  speak  to  him.'» 
Past  (Present,  iu  time)  •.  "if  ha  were  at  homo,  I  would  speals  to  him." 
Past-psrfect  (Past,  in  time) :  "  Ilad  he  been  at  home,  I  would  have  spoken  to  him." 
Tiiese  tenses  are  suGBcicnt,  yet  needed,  for  all  the  purposes  of  this  mood.    Most  gram- 
marians reject  the  past-perftct  tense:  but  this  tsnsa  U  subjunctive,  not  indicative, ia 
time  ;  subjunctive  in  origin,  and  subjunctive  in  syntax. 

The  past  subjunctive  may  sometimes  be  called  the  indefinite  subjunctive  5  and  tho 
past-pv-rfect,  the  pluperfect. 

The  outer  or  real  -world  impresses  itself  so  vividly  and  with  such 
distinctness  upon  the  mind,  that  the  indicative  mood  has  two  tenses 


134  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

for  each  great  period  of  time ;  but  the  subjunctive  moofl,  hewg  ap- 
plied to  what  ii  more  vague  and  less  important,  has  and  needs  but 
one  tense  for  each  pericxl.  Sometimes  other  tenses,  especially  the 
perfect,  are  found  in  this  mood ;  but  such  forms  are  antiquated,  and 
not  considered  necessary  to  modern  English. 

There  is  one  thing  about  the  subjunctive  mood  that  is  remarkable. 
Obliged  to  borrow  the  tenses  of  t!ie  indicative  njood,  and  unable  to 
vary  them  sufficiently  in  form,  it  adopts  ibr  each  period  of  time  the 
tense  of  the  prior  period,  in  order  to  avoid  expressing  the  matter-of- 
fact  sense  denoted  by  the  indicative  mood ;  because  we  can  not  now, 
for  instance,  do  a  past  act.  Thus  the  past-perfect  tense  becomes 
simply  a  past  tense ;  the  past,  a  present ;  and  the  present,  a  future. 

Potential  Mood. 
The  Potential  Mood  expresses  our  chief  relations  to 
acts  or  states,  either  indicatively  or  subjunctively. 
Ex.  —  "I  could  not  go  yesterday";   indicative,  in  time. 

"  I  tcould  go  now  or  to-morrow  " ;  suhjunctife,  m  time. 
That  is,  the  tenses  of  this  mooil,  especially  in  time,  correspond 
sometimes  with  the  indicative  mood,  and  sometimes -with  the  subjunc- 
tive. 

417.  A  verb  in  the  potential  mood  may  express,  — 
I.Power.     ''^1  can  goy     '•^l  could  go  y 

2.  Possibihty.     ^^  It  man  rain.'''*     *•'' It  might  rain,'* 

8.  Liberty  or  permission.     "  You  mag  goJ^ 

4.  Inclination.     *'  I  ivould  goJ*^ 

6.  Duty.     "I  sliouldgor 

G.  Necessity.     "  I  must  go^ 

7.  A  wish.     *•'•  Mag  joM  prosper.''^ 

Occasionally,  this  mood  expresses  other  relations,  as  tendency^ 
adaptation,  consequence,  cuntingence,  etc.;  and  in  some  expressions 
the  relational  sense  is  so  nearly  lost  that  the  mood  is  almost  indica- 
tive or  subjunctive. 

418.  The  potential  mood  can  be  used  interrogatively. 
Ex.  —  "  Must  I  endure  all  this  ?  " 


VERBS.  135 

419.    The  signs  of  the  potential  mood  are  may^  can, 

must^  mighty  could^  would,  and  should. 

Shall  in  the  pen=e  of  iitmt,  and  will  when  it  expresses  volition,  belong  rather 
to  the  potentini  mood  than  to  the  indicative;  but,  to  avoid  tronblesome  dis- 
tiuciious,  iijcy  are  always  considered  as  belonging  to  the  indicative  mood. 

Imperative  Hood. 
Tlie  Importitivo  I;2occl  expresses  our  volitions,  gen- 
erally as  commands. 

i20*    A  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  may  express,  — 

1.  Command.     "  Jolin,  ait  up." 

2.  Entreaty.     "  Forgive  our  trespasses.'* 

3.  Exhortation.     *■'•  BcUcvc,  rcfor:n,  and  he  caved.^^ 

4.  Permission.     "  Go  in  peace." 

Ve  command  inferiors,  entreat  superiors,  exhort  equals,  aaJ  permit  in  compliance 
vviiii  iho  wiiiitd  of  others. 

421.  The  imperative  mood  is  generally  used  only  In 
the  present  tense  and  the  second  person. 

Ex.  —  "  Charge,  Chester,  charge  /  "  —  Ccott, 

422.  The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  impQratlve  mood  is 
thou,  you,  or  yc,  generally  understood. 

Lx.  —  "  Know  thyself "  ==  Know  thou  tliyseh^. 

Sometimes  the  imperative  mood  is  fjuiid  in  the  perfect  tense  ;  as,  *-JIave 
done  thy  charms,  thou  hateful,  withered  hag."  —  Shakespeare. 

dC3.    Sometimes  the  imperative   mood  is  used  in  t!io 
f.rst  or  the  tliird  person. 

Ex.  —  "  Somchodj  call  my  wife."  —  ShaJccspeare. 

"  '  And  rest  ice  here,'  Matilda  said."  —  Scott. 
"  Laugh  those  "who  can,  weep  ihor.e  v:\io  may."  —  Td. 
'^  ]V'ioever  comes  this  way,  heho'xl  and  treniLlc."  —  Polio!:. 
Cuch  expressions  CX3  generally  poetical  forms,  preferred  Id  the  commoa  imperative  let. 
The  imperative  let  is  ofccn  used  wl>h  litih;  or  no  reference  to  a 
person  addressed',  simply  as  a  form  of  expression,  to  make  known 
the  will  of  the  speaker ;    as,  ''  Let  it  rain."     To  let  this  be  done 
evidently  does  not  depend  on  the  power  of  the  person  addressed. 


136  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK. 

TENSE. 

424.  Tense  Is  tliat  property  of  verbs  wliicli  shows  the 
distinctions  of  time. 

Time  may  be  divided  into  present^  past,  and  future.  Present 
TiMK,  strictly  speaking,  can  denote  but  a  moment  of  duration  ;  yet 
longer  periods,  extending  into  both  the  future  and  the  past,  are  often 
considered  present;  as  when  we  say,  tins  day,  this  week,  this  year,  this 
century,  in  our  lifetime.  Past  time  begins  from  the  present,  and 
goes  back  as  f:ir  as  our  thoughts  can  wander.  Future  time  begins 
from  the  same  point,  and  goes  forward  to  a  similar  extent.  In  each 
of  these  periods,  an  act  may  be  considered  either  as  merely  taking 
place  or  as  completed,  thus  making  the  six  tenses. 

Head  the  following  both  down  the  page  and  across  it:  — 

Present.  Past.  Future.- 

I  write  I  wrote  I  shall  write 

I  have  written  I  had  written  I  shall  have  written^ 

425.  There  are  six  tenses :  the  present.,  the  present- 
perfect;  \\\e  past^  t\\Q  past-perfect;  the  future,  and  the 
future-perfect. 

The  terms  perfect  and  pluperfect  may  also  be  used  in  stead  of  present-perfect  aud 
pant-perfect. 

It  seems  better  to  define  the  tenses  according  to  their  forms,  and  in  every  mood,  than 
accordiuis  to  this  tiiuj  which  they  denote. 

Present   Tons©. 
42S.   Present  Indicative.     A  verb  in  the  present 
tense  of  the  indicative  mood  may  denote,  — 

1.  A  present  act  or  state. 

Ex.  —  The  grass  is  growing.     This  is  a  warm  daje 

2.  A  present  habit  or  custom. 

Ex.  —  lie  chews  tobacco.     People  go  to  church  on  Sunday. 

3.  An  unchanoreable  truth. 

Ex.  —  Heat  melts  snow.     Virtue  produces  happiness. 

W.    The  Doctor  said  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 

lie  said  it  was  forty  miles  from  Baltimore  to  AVashington. 

Such  acts  or  states  are  truths  inherent  in  the  nature  of  things,  and  therefore  bplong  not 
only  to  present  time,  bat  to  all  time.  Since  we  live,  however,  only  la  present  time-  and 
ar«  anosliy  concerned  with  this  -pi-riod,  the  present  tease  is  rreferrtkl. 


VERBS,  137 

4.  A  past  or  future   transaction,  whicli  is  thus    pre- 
sented with  greater  vividness  or  certaiut^^ 

Ex.  —  "  On  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low,  .... 

Tlie  combat  deepens.     On,  ye  brave  !  **  —  Camphell. 
*'  The  Guard  never  surrenders :  it  dies!  "  i.  e.,  will  never,  etc. 
By  this  species  of  present  tense,  the  reader  is  made,  as  it  were,  a  spectator  of  ihe  scene. 

5.  Some  characteristic  of  an  author,  as  observed  in  his 
works  now  existing. 

Ex.  —  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well.     Milton  is  sublime. 

427.  The  present  cubjunctivc  impHcs  future  time* 

Ex. —  If  it  rain,  our  flowers  will  live. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  messenger  be  sent  as  soon  as  possible. 

428.  The  present  potential  is  present  or  future  in 
regard  to  both  the  mood  and  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. —  lie  mai/  be  coming.     I  can  pay  you  next  Christmas. 

429.  The  present  imperative  is  present  in  regard  to 
tlie  mood,  and  future  in  regard  to  the  act  or  state. 

Ex.  —  "  Return  soon."     "I  said.  Go;  and  he  went." 

The  imperative  mood  has  the  form  of  the  prexevt  tnt-if  ;  in  other  rppppcts,  howoyer. 
It  has  little  or  riothii);;  to  <lo  witli  tiuic,  but  cx^i\.i>ac;>  merdy  tiio  will  of  Uiw  b^je^^kcr  iu  ra- 
gard  to  the  perduu  a'idressed. 

Proscnt-porfoct  "onco. 
433.  Present-perfect  Indicative.     A  verb  in  the 
present-perfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood  may  repre- 
sent something, — 

1.  As  completed  in  present  time. 
Ex.  —  I  have  finished  the  work. 

2.  As  connected  with  present  time. 

Ex.  —  "  They  have  been  married  twenty  years."*  And  still  remain  so. 
"W.    They  continue  with  us  now  three  days. 

-    431.    An  act  may  be  connected  wdth  present  lime, — 

1.  Cy  the  present  existence  of  the  doer. 
Ex.  —  "I  have  gftea  read  Yir^ll."     And  I  still  live,  and  may  read 
liliu  a<^aliu 


188  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  By  the  present  continuance  of  the  act  or  state. 

Ex.  —  "  Thus  has  it  [the  Mississippi]  Jlowed  for  ages."  And  it 
still  /lows  and  flows. 

3.  By  the  present  existence  of  the  result. 

Ex.  —  "  Cicero  has  written  orations."  Cicero  is  dead,  and  the 
writing  is  past,  but  the  orations  still  exist. 

4.  By  the  presence  of  some  important  circumstance. 
Ex.  —  "  Many  important  events  have  happened  \  during  this  i/ear." 

**  On  this  island  several  duels  have  been  fought."    Time  aud  place  yet 
remaining. 

432.  The  precont-perfect  potential  is  present  or 
future  in  regard  to  the  mood,  and  presents  the  act  or 
state  as  relatively  past. 

Ex.  —  "  The  child  maTj  have  fallen  into  the  well."  "  By  that  time 
he  may  have  fjone  ahead  of  you." 

Past  TensG. 

433.  Past  Indicative.  A  verb  in  the  past  tense  of 
the  indicative  mood  denotes,  — 

1.  Simply  a  past  act  or  state. 

Ex.  —  "  He  was  fishing  when  I  saw  him."    "  If  he  ever  teas  rich,** 

2.  Sometimes  a  past  habit  or  custom. 

Ex.  —  "  The  pood  times  when  the  farmer  et)trrta!n*^d  the  traveler  without 
pay,  when  hcinntedhim  to  tarry,  and  join  in  ilie  chase,  and  whetj  Christinas 
and  Fourth  of  July  were  sca?ons  of  festivity,  have  passed  away."  —  Benton, 

434.  The  past  subjunctive  denotes  present  or  in- 
definite time,  and  it  generally  denies  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — If  I  were  rich,  I  would  give  freely. 
W.   He  runs  as  if  he  was  running  for  life. 
This  tense  sometimes  becomes  definitely  past  or  future  from  Its  syntax. 

435.  The  past  potential  may  bo  present,  past,  or 
future,  in  regard  to  both  the  mood  and  the  act  or  state. 
It  represents  the  act  or  state  as  real,  contingent,  or  denied. 

"  Ho  would  go  yesterday."   "  lie  would  go  now  or  to-morrow,  if  he  could." 


VERBS.  139 

Sometimes  it  denotes  a  past  habit  or  custom. 
Ex.  —  "  There  would  she  sit  and  weep  for  hours." 

Past-perfect  Tense. 
436i   Past-perfect  Indicative.   A  verb  in  the  past- 

perfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood  represents  sometliing 

as  completed  or  ended  in  past  time. 
Ex.  —  "  Here  a  small  cabin  had  been  erected." 
W.    And  he  that  was  dead,  sat  up,  and  began  to  speak. 

437.    The  past-perfect    subjunctive  or  potential 
denotes  simply  past  time,  and  denies  the  act  or  state, 
Ex.  —  "  If  I  had  been  at  home,  I  should  have  gone.'* 

Future   Tense. 
438i    A  verb  in  the  future  tense  denotes,  — 

1.  Simply  a  future  act  or  state. 

Ex.  —  "  The  snow  will  melt."    "  I  shall  be  busy  this  evening." 

2.  Sometimes  a  future  habit  or  custom. 
Ex.  —  "  The  steer  and  lion  at  one  crib  shaU  meet." 

Future-perfect  Tense. 

439.  A  verb  in  the  future-perfect  tense  represents 
something  as  completed  in   future   time. 

Ex.  —  The  house,  when  finished,  will  have  cost  a  fortune. 
W.   This  was  four  years  ago  next  August.  —  School  Report, 
Next  Christmas  I  shall  be  at  school  a  year. 

General  Bemarks. 

440.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  in  order  to 
be  distinguished  better  from  the  tenses  of  the  indicative, 
move  forward  in  time. 

Indicative  :  "  If  I  am  "  —  now.  "  if  I  was  "  —  in  past  time.  *^1  had  been  there  "  — 
be/ore  a  certain  past  time. 

Suljunctive :  "  if  I  fc«  "  —  hereafter.  "  If  I  were  "  —  now.  "  Had  Ibetn  there  "  •~ 
a^  a  certain  past  time,  etc. 


140  •  ENGLISH   GEAMMAB. 

441.  The  tenses  of  the  potential  mood,  when  used  sub- 
junctively,  also  move  forward  in  time. 

Ex.  —  "I  should  think  you  m'ujJd  risk  it "  ;  i.  e.,  now  or  hereafter. 

442.  Sometimes  when,  till,  before,  as  soon  as,  whoever, 
whatever,  or  a  similar  term,  carries  the  present  or  the 
present-perfect  tense  into  future  time. 

Ex.  —  "AVhen  he  comeSj  I  shall  go."     "  Catch  whatever  conies.'" 
"When  he  has  Jinished  the  work,  I  shall  pay  him." 

A  tense  is  sometimes  used  to  deny  the  same  act  or  state  of  the 
subject  in  a  neighboring  tense ;  as,  "  He  has  been  rich " ;  i.  e.,  he  is 
not  so  now. 

The  present,  the  past,  and  the  future,  are  called  the  absolute  tenses  ; 
and  the  present-perfect,  the  past-perfect,  and  the  future-perfect,  the 
relative  tenses,  for  these  relate  from  one  point  of  time  to  another. 
Sometimes  the  prominent  idea  in  the  absolute  tenses  is  simply  that  a 
certain  act  or  state  exists ;  in  the  relative  tenses,  that  it  is  completed. 

Since  the  perfect  passive  participle  generally  implies 
completion,  a  passive  verb  in  the  absolute  tenses  is  fre-^ 
quently  equivalent  in  time  to  the  corresponding  relative 
tenses  of  the  active  voice. 

*'  My  rose-bush  is  destroyed  " ;    "  Some  one  has  destrofjed  my  rose-bnsh." 

"  The  coat  will  then  be  finished'" ;     "  The  tailor  will  then  have  finished  the  coat." 

Observe  also  tlie  kindred  analogy  in  the  following  passive  forms:  — 
"  The  house  is  building  " ;  present.  )  So,  "  The  house  was  building'''' ;  imperfect . 
"  The  house  is  built " ;  completed.    >        "  The  house  was  built  " ;  completed. 

FORMS    OF    THE    TENSES. 

443.  The  Forms  of  a  Tense  are  the  different  ways 
in  which  it  can  be  expressed. 

Ex.  —  He  strikes,  does  strike,  is  strikinrj,  is  struck,  striketh. 

444.  There  are  five  forms ;  the  common,  the  emphatic^ 
the  passive^  the  progressive,  and  the  ancient,  or  the  solemn 
style. 

445.  The  Common  Form  is  the  verb  expressed  in 
the  most  simple  and  ordinary  manner. 

Ex.  —  T'xmafies.     He  went  home. 


VERBS.  141 

440.    The    Emphatic   Form  denotes   emphasis,  ex- 
pressed by  do  or  OM  as  a  part  of  the  verb. 
Ex.  —  I  did  my  so.     Really,  it  does  move. 

Do  and  did  do  not  make  negative  propositions  emphatic,  but  simply  pive  a  better  po- 
Bition  to  the  negative  by  helping  to  enclose  it  within  the  verb  ;  as,  "  I  ilid  not  see  hiui." 

Do  and  did  da  not  make  interrogative  propositions  emphatic,  but  simply  give  the  in- 
terrogaiive  lorm  by  preceding  the  subject ;  as,  '*  D:d  ye  not  hear  it?  " 

447.  The  Passive  Form  is  that  which  is  generally 
used  to  express  the  passive  voice ;  and  it  is  made  by  com- 
bining the  verb  he,  or  some  variation  of  it,  ■with  the  per- 
fect participle. 

Ex.  —  The  oak  was  shattered  by  lightning. 

"  The  melancholy  days  are  come.''  —  Bryant. 

448.  The  Progressive  Form  is  that  which  expresses 
continuance  of  the  act  or  state  ;  and  it  is  made  by  com- 
bining the  verb  be,  or  some  variation  of  it,  with  the  pres- 
ent participle. 

This  form,  by  spreading  out,  as  it  were,  the  act  before  the  mind,  is  sometimes  highly 
vivid  and  expressive. 

Active:  I  wrote;  1  was  writing.    Sha  is  dancing.    {Dances — trait) 

Passive  :  "  I  guessed  that  some  mischief  teas  contriving."  —  Swijl. 

"  Where  a  new  church  is  now  building."  —  Everett. 

"  While  these  affairs  icere  transacting  iij  Europe."  —  Bancrojl. 

"  Our  chains  are  forging." —  Wirt,  as  Patrick  Henry. 

"  Yankee  Doodle  teas  playing  as  I  came  in."  —  M.  C. 

"  Where  the  new  rifle-practice  teas  being  introduced." — Atl.Montldy. 

"  Your  friend  is  being  buried."  —  Harper's  Magazine. 

"  The  shocking  neologism,  '  The  ship  is  being  calked.' "  —  Marsh. 

"  The  participial  form  [infin.  and  part.]  is.  in  most  lansruases,  a  stumbling-block.  (Query 
for  the  purists:  Ought  I  rather  to  say,  A  block-lli;it-is-lteiug-stumblcd-at?)"— ilfarsA. 
For  additional  remarks  on  this  subject,  see  pp,  307  and  316. 

The  progressive  form  can  generally  be  applied  only  to  those  acts  or 
states  which  admit  of  intermissions  and  renewals.  Permanent  mental 
acts  or  states,  and  unchanfjetible  truths,  can  therefore  be  seldom  expressed 
in  it.  We  can  not  say,  "  I  am  respecting  him,"  "  I  am  understanding  you." 
"  The  air  is  liaring  weight "  ;  but  we  must  say,  "  I  respect  him,"  "  I  under- 
stand  you,"  "  The  air  has  weight." 


142  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

449.  The  Ancient  Form  is  an  old  common  form  that 
is  still  retained  in  the  solemn  style. 

It  has  the  ending  t,  st,  or  est,  for  Xh^  second  person  singular ; 
th  or  eth  in  stead  of  s  or  cs,  for  the  third  person  singular  j  and 
generally  uses  thou  or  ye  in  stead  of  you. 

This  form  occurs  in  the  Bible,  in  prayer,  in  sermons,  and  in  poetry. 

Ex.  — "  Thou  harb'dst  the  dart."     "  Adver&\ty  Jlaltei-etli  no  man." 

Both  is  used  for  the  auxiliary  does,  and  doeth  for  the  verb  does. 
Hath  and  saith  are  contractions  of  haveih  and  sayeth. 

450.  Interrogative.  A  proposition  is  mads  interroga- 
tive^ generally  by  placing  the  verb,  or  some  part  of  it, 
before  the  nominative. 

Ex.  —  "  Know  ye  the  land  ?  "     "  Have  you  seen  him  ?  '* 

451.  Negative.  A  proposition  is  made  negative  by 
placing  not  after  the  verb  or  after  the  first  auxiliary. 

Ex.  —  "I  know  not."     "  It  could  not  have  been  known." 

A  participle  or  an  infinitive  is  expressed  negatively,  generally  by 
placing  not  before  it;  as,  '■'•Not  to  know  some  things  is  an  honor." 
"  Not  hearing  of  him,  we  returned." 

Some  propositions  are  both  interrojrative  and  negative.  Negative  ques- 
tions generally  imply  something  contrary  to  the  speaker's  belief,  or  ask  for 
confirmation.  Both  affirmative  and  negative  questions  are  answered  by  no 
or  yes  alike.     "  Did  you  go  ?  —  No."     "  Did  you  not  go.  —  No." 

"And  did  they  not  catch  you,  then  ?  —  No,  thank  Heaven  !  " — Garridc 

PERSON  AND  NUMBER. 

452.  The  Person  and  Number  of  a  verb  are  its  form 
to  suit  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 

Ex.  —  I  am.     Thou  art.     lie  is.     We  are. 

Verbs  have,  like  their  subjects,  three  persons  and  two  numbers. 

453.  A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  in 
person  and  number. 

That  is,  it  must  be  expressed  according  to  the  Conjufration,  pp.  160-  170,  which  shows 
how  the  beat  writers  and  spealierd  exprc&j  the  verb  in  regard  to  its  subject. 


VERBS.  143 

454.  J,  tliou^  you^  he,  she,  it,  we,  and  fhei/,  either  are  the 
subjects  of  finite  verbs,  or  they  can  represent  all  other 
subjects  in  person  and  number. 

455.  Thou  generally  requires  the  verb,  or  the  first 
auxiliary,  to  end  with  est,  st,  or  t. 

"  Thou  knowcsi  that  thou  didst  the  deed."     "  Thou  art  the  man." 
When  the  termination  required  bj  tJiou  would  be  harsh,  it  is  some- 
times omitted,  especially  in  poetry. 

*'  O  Thou  my  voice  inspire, 
"Who  touched  Isaiah's  hallowed  lips  with  fire."  —  Pope, 
**  Perhaps  thou  noticed  on  thy  way  a  little  orb."  —  Polloh. 
In  the  imperative  mood,  thoiL  does  not  require  any  variation 
in  the  form  of  the  verb. 

453.  He,  she,  or  it,  requires  that  the  verb,  in  the  pres- 
ent indicative,  shall  end  with  s  or  es,  ih  or  etiu 
Ex.  —  He  haSy  or  hath.     She  teaches,  or  teacheth. 
The  verb  ought,  which  is  never  vy ied,  is  the  only  exception. 

457.  In  the  plural  number  the  verb  has  the  same  form 
for  all  the  persons. 

Ex.  —  We  write.     You  write.     They  write. 

The  agreement  of  the  verb  with  its  subject,  and  the  agreement  of 
the  pronoun  with  its  antecedent,  make  the  chief  syntax  of  the  Eng- 
lish language ;  let  us  therefore  consider,  — 

1.  The  person  of  the  subject  or  antecedent. 

2.  The  number  of  the  subject  or  antecedent. 

3.  The  terms  relating  to  the  subject  or  antecedent,  which  do  not 
affect  the  form  of  the  verb  or  pronoun. 

1.  Person. 

458.  When  two  or  more  nominatives  or  antecedents, 
differing  in  person,  are  taken  together,  or  are  connected 
merely  by  and,  the  verb  or  pronoun  prefers  the  first  per- 
son to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third. 

Ex.  —  "  You  and  I" or,  "  You,  he,  and  /"  =  Wc ;  "  You  and  he  "=  You. 
"  James  and  1  have  recited  |  our  lessons." 


144  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

459.  When  two  or  more  nominatives,  dlfTcring  in  per- 
son, are  taken  separately,  or  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the 
verb  prefers  the  nominative  next  to  it. 

Ex.  —  "You  or  I  am  to  blame  ";  better,  Either  you  are  to  blame, 
or  I  am.     "  Thou  or  thy  friends  are  to  make  reparatioa." 
W.   lie  or  you  is  the  cause  of  my  trouble. 

2.  Singular    Subject    or    Antecedent. 
4G0.    The  following  subjects  or  antecedents  are  singu- 
lar : ' — 

1.  A  singular  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  single  ob- 
ject. 

Ex.  —  The  fire  hams.     John  is  at  home. 

2.  A  singular  collective  noun  denoting  a  group  of  ob- 
jects as  one  thing. 

Ex.  —  "  Ilis  family  is  large,  yet  he  supports  iC* 

W.   The  army  of  Xerxes  were  vanquished  by  the  Greeks. 

3.  A  plural  noun  denoting  but  one  thing. 

Ex.  —  The  "  Pleasures  of  Hope  "  teas  trrilten  by  Campbell. 

W.  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts  "  are  a  gloomy  but  instructive  poem, 

4.  Two  or  more  nouns  joined  by  andy  yet  denoting 
but  one  person  or  thing. 

Ex.  —  Yonder  lives  a  great  scholar  and  statesman. 
"  Why  is  dust  and  ashes  [man]  proud  ?  " 
Goldsmith's  "  Edwin  and  Angelina  "  is  a  beautiful  poem. 

6.  Sometimes  two  or  more  singular  substantives,  joined 
by  and  and  denoting  different  things,  but  taken  as  ono 
whole. 

Ex.  —  "  Wooing,  wedding,  and  repenting,  J  is  a  Scotch  jig,  a  measure, 
and  a  cinque  pace."—  Shakespeare.     Here  is  seems  to  be  proper,  as 
referring  to  the  three  things  taken  in  a  certain  order  as  one  whole. 
"  Descent  and  fall  to  us  is  adverse."  —  Hfilton. 
So,  "  To  turn  andjlee  j  was  now  impossible."  — Irving. 


VEEBS.       ^  145 

6.  A  singular  substantive,  or  a  phrase  of  two  or  more, 

modified  by  each,  every,  either,  neither,  many  a,  or  no, 

Ex.  —  "Every  house  was  burned;  and  every  man,  woman,  and  ^ 

child,  was  killed"  —  Burke. 

*'  No  rank,  no  fortune,  no  honor,  makes  the  guilty  happy." —  Blair, 
"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen."  —  Gray. 
W.   No  crop,  no  house,  and  no  fence,  were  left.  —  Newspaper. 
Every  heart  and  eye  were  filled  with  pity.  —  Croly. 

7.  Two  or  more  singular  substantives  joined  by  or  or 
nor, 

"  Tuesday,  "Wednesday,  or  Thursday,  was  the  appointed  day." 

"  To  forsake  a  friend,  or  to  divulge  his  secrets,  is  mean." 

*'  Neither  precept  nor  discipline  is  so  forcible  as  example." 

"  Nor  eye  nor  listening  ear  an  object ^nt/s."  —  Young. 

W.  Neither  poetry  nor  criticism  have  emerged  from  pedantry. 

Edinburgh  Revicto. 

8.  A  series  of  substantives  placed  after  a  verb,  when 
the  verb,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  agrees  only  with  the 
first,  and  is  understood  to  each  of  the  rest. 

"  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory."  —  Bible, 
*'  There  is  Concord,  and  Lexington,  and  Bunker  Hill,  and  there 

they  will  remain  forever."  —  Webster. 
The  pronoun  they,  in  this  last  example,  seems  to  afford,  in  regard  to  pro- 
nouns, an  exception  to  the  general  principle  ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  this  ap- 
parent exception  arises  simply  from  a  different  view  that  is  taken  of  the  sense. 

3.  Plural    Subject   or   Antecedent. 
dGl.   The  following  subjects  or  antecedents  are  plu'^ 
ral :  — 

1.  A  plural  substantive  that  denotes  two  or  more  ob- 
jects, or  that  is  plural  in  sense. 

Ex.  —  The  fires  burn.     The  ashes  have  lost  \  their  heat. 
W.   Here  is  five  or  six  barrels  that  you  may  take. 

There  was  not  more  than  tea  or  fifteen  persons  present. 


146  ENGUSH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  A  collective  noun  that  is  singular  m  form,  but  plu- 
ral in  idea. 

Ex.  —  "  The  council  were  divided  In  their  opinions." 

Such  a  nonn  is  plural  in  idea  when  we  must  think  of  the  persona  or  things  separately, 
in  oraer  to  make  the  assertion. 

Ex.  — "  The  majority  are  handsome,  and  of  large  stature." 
That  is,  the  individual  islanders  of  this  majority  are  so.  —  See  Ellis's  Polynesian  Res, 

\(      W.   Tlie  public  is  respectfully  invited. 

The  multitude  eagerly  pursues  pleasure. 

8.  A  singular  noun,  used,  by  synecdoche,  for  a  plural. 
Ex.  —  Eorty  liead  of  cattle  were  grazing  on  the  meadow. 

4.  Two  or  more  substantives  connected  by  and^  and 
denoting  different  persons  or  things. 

Ex.  —  "John,  James,  and  William,  [=  the  boys,]  are  studying.^' 

*'  You,  he,  and  J,  [=  we,]  are  allotced  to  go." 
*'To  love  our  enemies,  to  mind  our  own  business,  and  to  relieve 
the  distressed,  are  things  oftcner  praised  than  practised." 
W.   AVhere  is  your  slate  and  pencil? 

Is  your  father  and  mother  at  home  ? 

There  was  at  least  he  and  I,  who  did  not  recite. 

5.  A  singular  and  a  plural  substantive,  or  two  or  more 
plurals,  joined  by  or  or  nor. 

"  The  king  or  his  advisers  were  opposed  to  that  course ;  while 
neither  the  prince  nor  his  friends  were  prepared  to  dofend  it." — Hume. 

Sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  nominative ;  as, 
*'  AVherc  there  is  an  infant  or  infants  who  are  yet,"  etc. — Mo.  Statufes. 

4.  Terms  that  do  Not  Affect  the  Form  of  the  Verb  or  Pronoun. 

462.  The  following  terms  do  not  affect  the  form  of  the 
verb  or  pronoun :  — 

1.  An  adjunct  to  the  nominative. 
Ex.  —  "  The  long  rotu  of  elms  was  magnificent." 

So,  "  Six  months'  interest  is  due." 
W.   The  chief  portion  of  the  exports  consist  of  silks. — Newspaper, 


VERBS.  147 

2.  A  term  in  apposition. 

Ex.  —  "  Zore,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love." 
"W.  The  Bible,  or  Holy  Scriptures,  are  the  best  book. 

3.  A  predicate-nominative. 

Ex.  —  "  /  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame."  —  Bible. 
"His  meat  [foodj  was  locusts  and  wild  honey.  — lb. 
*'  The  people  are  a  many-headed  beast."  —  Pope. 
W.   The  Crown  of  virtue  are  peace  and  honor.  ^ 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  which  of  the  nominatives  is  the  sub- 
ject, or  to  which  nominative  a  relative  clause  should  be  referred.  The  sense 
is  the  best  guide.  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death."  Here  wages  is  the  nomina^' 
tive  to  is.  "  J  am  the  genera!,  who  command  you  " ;  i.  e.,  I  am  the  general.  "  I 
am  the  general  who  commands  you'' ;  i.  e.,  I  am  your  general. 

4.  A  term  set  off  parenthetically  or  emphatically. 
"  This  man  (^nd,  indeed,  all  such  men)  deserves  death." 

*'  Our  statesmen,,  especially  John  Adams,  have  reached  a  good  old  age.** 
*'  The  carriage,  as  well  as  the  horses,  was  much  injured." 
The  subjects Tjclong  to  different  propositions,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  subject. 
"W.    Our  taxes,  especially  the  military  tax,  is  enormous. 
The  house,  as  well  as  the  furniture,  were  destroyed. 

5.  An  excepted  or  excluded  term,  or  a  term  that  is  ap- 
parently set  aside  for  a  more  important  or  expressive  one. 
Ex.  —  "  Pleasure,  and  not  books,  is  his  dcli^^ht.'* 

"  Books,  and  not  pleasure,  are  his  delight." 
"  Since  none  but  thou  can  end  it."  —  Milton, 
*'Not  only  rage,  but  even  murmurs  ceaae." — Pope,  abridged. 
"  What  black  despair,  what  horror  Jills  his  heart! "  —  Themson. 
"  Honor  and  virtue,  nay,  even  interest  demands  a  different  course.** 
W.   Industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  produce  wealth. 
JtsothinjX  but  wailinjis  were  heard. 


463i  Words  must  sometimes  bo  supplied,  to  complete 
the  subject. 

Ex.  — "  Little  and  often  fills  the  purse  "  =  To  put  in  little  and 

often,  etp.   "  Dear  and  far-fetched  is  for  ladies"  =  What  is  dear,  etc. 

It  would  probably  be  quite  as  well  to  parse  the  whole  plirase  aa  a  noun,  trithout  aup- 
plyicg  word*. 


148  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

464.  A  few  verbs  denote  such  acts  or  states  tliat  the 
language  has  no  nouns  suitable  to  be  their  subjects ;  and 
these  verbs  are  therefore  accommodated  in  syntax  with 
the  pronoun  it, 

Ex.  —  "  It  rains:*    "  It  snows"     "  It  thunders.'* 

Verbs  of  this  kind  are  impersonal  in  some  languages  ;  they  are  logically  so  in  ours, 
but  not  grammatically  so ;  for  the  diiliculty  is  in  the  meaning  of  it,  and  not  in  the 
agreement  of  tiie  verb.  The  word  it  seems  to  be  needed  in  syntax  ;  f  jr  without  it  such 
Words  as  rains  and  thunders  might  sometimes  appear  as  the  plurals  of  the  nouns  rain 
aud  thunder,  and  not  as  verbs. 

465.  An  Impersonal  Verb  is  a  verb  that  has  person 
and  number,  without  having  a  subject;  being  generally 
a  mere  modifying  form  of  expression. 

Ex.  —  Met/links,  meseems,  frequently  the  imperative  let,  and  some- 
times other  imperatives;  as,  "There  are,  say,  a  thousand  languages 
and  dialects ; "  i.  e.,  probably  a  thousand,  etc. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  independent  infinitive  and  participial  phrases  also  fall  into 
the  foregoing  analogy  -,  as,  "  To  speak  frankly,  he  will  probably  not  succeed."  «'  Gen- 
erally  speaking,  the  people  are  in  good  circumstances." 

Let  ua  next  notice  by  what  means  all  the  foregoing  properties  of  verbs  are  expressed.    | 

AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

466.  The  auxiliary  verbs  express  voice,  mood,  tense, 
person,  and  number. 

They  also  contribute  to  what  is  called,  in  syntax,  position  (as  in  negative  or  interroga- 
tive propositions)  ;  and  thiy  are  used  as  the /pronouns  or  proverbs  to  other  verbs. 

467.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  be  and  its  variations ;  do, 
did;  can,  could;  have,  had;  may,  might;  must;  shall, 
should;  will,  and  would. 

Be  is  used  to  express  the  verb  in  the  passive  and  the  progressive  form; 
as,  "  The  house  is  built."  "  The  leaves  are  fallimj."  It  shows  when  or 
how  the  person  or  diing  exists  in  the  state  denoted  by  the  rest  of  the  verb. 

Do  and  Did,  except  in  negative  or  interrogative  propositions,  arc  gen- 
erally used  to  give  emphasis  to  the  verb;  as,  "But  when  I  do  go,  I  choose 
to  go  as  a  lady."  —  Mrs.  Caudle.  They  denote  action  indefinitely,  which 
ii  made  specific  by  the  rest  of  the  verb. 

Can  and  Could  are  used  to  express,  — - 

1.  Al)i!ity.     "  I  mn  carry  the  basket." 

2.  Possibdity.     "  It  can  not  be."    It  is  impossible. 


VERBS.  149 

Have  and  Had  are  used  to  express  the  perfect  tenses. 

Ex.  —  Ihave  seen.     I  had  seen.     I  shall  have  seen. 
May  and  Might  are  used  to  express,  — 

1.  Ability  or  probability.     "  I  miyht  have  done  it." 

2.  Possibility  or  probability.     "  It  might  have  been."    "It  may  rain.** 

3.  Permission.     "  You  may  go."" 

4.  Wishing.     *'May  you  prosper.'^ 

Must  is  used  to  express  necessity.    **  Die  I  must."  —  27.  K,  White. 
I     Shall  and  Should  are  used  to  set  forth  the  act  or  state,  — 

1.  As  a  duty,  as  something  commanded  or  authorized,  or  as  some- 
thing determined  or  resolved  upon. 

Ex.  —  "  Tliou  shall  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself."     "  You  should  obey.'* 
"  He  sJiall  stay  at  home."     "  They  said,  '  It  shall  be  done.'  " 
*'  Shall  I  be  left,  forgotten  in  the  dust, 
When  Fate,  relenting,  lets  the  flower  revive  ?  "  —  Beattie, 

"W".   Will  I  be  allowed  to  occupy  this  seat  ? 

2.  As  something  compelled  by  circumstances,  especially  "when  th© 
Bubject  is  of  the  fii-st  person. 

Ex.  —  "I  shall  be  drowned ;  for  nobody  will  help  me.'* 
"W".   I  will  suffer,  if  I  do  not  take  my  overcoat. 
We  would  then  be  obliged  to  retreat 

3.  As  something  future  or  contingent,  but  without  reference  to  the 
will  of  the  subject,  and  especially  when  the  subject  is  of  the  firsfc 
person. 

Ex.  —  "  I  shall  call  to  see  you  this  evening," 

"  Slwnld  you  meet  any  of  my  friends,  remember  me  to  them." 
*'  Do  you  think  the  hook  will  sell  ?  —  I  should  think  so." 
*'  Whoever  shall  violate  this  rule,  shall  [1[  1]  be  punished." 
"  Yes,  my  son ;  you  shall  often  Jind  the  richest  men  the  meanest.** 
—  Tattler.     That  is,  this  fact  will  often  force  itself  upon  your 
notice.     An  obsolescent  but  good  use  of  the  word. 
W.  Will  I  find  you  here  when  I  return  ?  —  See  also  ^  1. 

Would  we  hear  a  good  sermon  if  we  would  go  1  Pand. 

Isabella  promised  a  pension  to  the  first  seaman  who  would  discover 
The  various  meanings  of  shall  tend  to  make  it  very  expressive  in 
prophecy. 

Ex.  —  "  Earth  shall  by  angel  feet  be  trod, 

One  great  garden  of  her  God!  " —  Croly  (on  the  Millennium). 
'         "Beware  of  the  day  when  the  Lowlands  shedl  meet  thee." — Campbell. 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

"Will  and  Would  are  used  to  set  forth  the  act  or  state,  — 

1.  As  something  proceeding  from  the  will  or  nature  of  the  subject. 
Ex.  —  "  We  will  drain  our  dearest  veins,  but  they  shall  be  free." 

"  I  would  not  live  always  ;  I  ask  not  to  stay." 

"  This  will  do."  "  It  will  rain  soon."  "The  cause  will  raise  up  armies.*' 
"W".   I  shall  go  home,  in  spite  of  all  opposition." 

2.  As  something  repeated  from  a  steadfast  inclination  to  do  it. 
Ex.  —  "  There  would  she  sit  and  weep  for  hours." 

3.  Simply  as  something  future,  wherever  shall  or  should  would 
imply  compulsion ;  and  hence  especially  when  the  subject  is  of  the 
second  or  third  person. 

Ex.  —  "  You  will  he  ridiculed  for  your  eccentricity.'* 

"  If  he  should  go  to  church,  he  would  hear  a  good  sermon." 

W.   I  believe  that  all  these  volunteers  shall  be  sent  away. 

In  conditional  propositions,  shall  or  should  must  nearly  always  be  used 
to  express  simple  futurity  or  contingence  ;  for  will  and  would  in  such  pro- 
positions generally  refer  to  the  will  of  the  subject. 

Ex.  —  "If  I  shall  have  been."  "If  you  shall  have  been."  "When  he 
thall  go.^'     "  Whoever  shall  say  so." 

408i  Auxiliary  verbs  are  often  convenient  when  we  wish  to 
express  the  verb  interrogatively,  negatively,  or  elliptically. 

Ex.  —  "  Do  you  know  Lydia  Flare  ?  "    Placed  before  the  nominative. 
"  Can  you  go ? "    "I  do  not  want  his  company."     (See  page  141.) 
"  If  ronn  will  not  do  justice,  God  wiU  "  [do  justice]. 
"  They  herd  cattle,  and  raise  corn,  just  as  we  used  to  do ;  i.  e.,  to  herd 
cattle  and  raise  corn.     Do  is  sometimes  thus  used  as  a  sort  of  pro-verb  to 
represent  an  active  verb  or  a  phrase. 

469.  Be,  do,  and  have,  and  sometimes  other  auxiliaries,  are 
used  also  as  principal  verbs.  They  are  thus  used  when  not 
combined  with  a  principal  verb  expressed  or  understood. 

Principal.  Auxiliary. 

*' I  was  sick."  ^'1  was  made  sick." 

'•  He  does  well."  "  He  does  write  well." 

*'  She  has  nothing."  "  She  has  learned  nothing." 

470.  The  auxiliaries  do,  have,  may,  can,  must,  will,  and  shaU, 
generally  accord  best  with  one  another,  and  with  the  present 
tenses ;  the  auxiliaries  did,  had,  miglU,  could,  would,  and  should^ 


VERBS.  151 

generally  accord   best  with  one  another,  and  with   the   past 

tenses. 
Ex.  —  "  Whar  Nature  has  denied,  fools  will  pursue."  —  Young. 

What  Nature  hud  denied,  he  loould  pursue. 
W.  If  I  lend  you  my  horse,  I  should  have  to  borrow  one  myself. 
To  the  foregoing  paragraph  there  are  many  exceptions. 

INFINITIVES. 

471 .  An  Infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  generally 
begins  with  to,  and  that  expresses  the  act  or  state  without 
predicating  it. 

Ex, —  To  lead,  to  have  led,  to  be  led,  to  have  been  led. 

472.  There  are  two  infinitives ;  the  present  and  the 
perfect. 

A  transitive  verb  has  both  in  each  voice  ;  thus  making /our  forms,  as  above. 

Present  Infinitive. 

473.  The  Present  Inlinitive  denotes,  — 

1.  Simply  the  act  or  state. 
Ex.  —  "  To  love  is  to  serve.'* 

2.  The  act  or  state  as  present  in  regard  to  the  word 
on  which  the  infinitive  depends. 

Ex.  —  "  She  see7ns  \  to  study." 

3.  The  act  or  state  as  future  in  regard  to  the  word  on 
■which  the  infinitive  depends. 

Ex.  —  "  Man  never  is,  but  always  to  he,  blest."  —  Pope. 
W.   I  hoped  to  have  heard  from  you. 

I  intended  to  have  said  less. 

It  was  still  in  his  power  to  have  refused.  —  Dryden. 

474.  The  present  infinitive  consists  of  to,  combined 
with  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb ;  or  of  to  he,  with  a 
simple  participle. 

Ex.  —  To  write,  to  be  writing,  to  be  written. 


152  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Perfect  Infinitive. 

475»    The  Perfect  Infinitive   represents  the  act  or 
state  as  completed  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex.  —  "  You  seem  |  to  have  come  through  the  rain." 

i7Q»    The  perfect  infinitive  consists  of  to  have^  or  to 
have  been,  combined  with  a  simple  participle. 

To  have  •written,  to  have  been  writing,  to  have  been  •vrritten. 
/  The  perfect  infinitive  is  so  combined  with  the  verb  ought,  and  sometimes 
with  the  verb  have  or  ims,  that  the  whole  expression  is  equivalent  in  time 
to  the  past-perfect  potential ;  as,  "  I  ought  to  haoe  gone."  And  in  the  idiom, 
"  I  hud  like  to  have  fallen  overboard." —  Swift.  And,  probably,  '*  I  was  to 
have  gone"  iinplving,  "  I  did  not  go,"  and  considered  incorrect  by  most 
grammarians,  is  allowable  as  belonging  to  the  same  analogy. —  See  p.  307. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  in  combination  with  most  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  the  perfect  infini> 
tive  does  not  imply  uutecedeut  lime  ;  aad  all  the  foregoing  verbs  aeem  bave  fallen  Into 

the  same  analogy. 

Syntax  of  Infinitives. 

477.  An  infinitive  may  express  something,  — 

As  the  cause.     "  I  grieve  to  hear  of  your  bad  conduct." 
As  the  ptrjioae.     "  And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray." 
As  simply  a.  future  or  subsequent  event.     "  He  fell  to  rise  no  more." 
As  the  respect  wherein.     "  Willing  to  wound,  and  yet  afraid  to  strike." 
As  a  determination  or  obligation.    "  I  am  to  go."  "  It  is  to  be  deplored,  that,"  etc. 
As  the  manner.     "All  things  went  to  suit  me.** 

As  the  supplement  of  a  comparison.    "  Good  enough  to  sdl.**    •*  So  mean  as 
to  be  despised." 

478.  An  infinitive  may  be  used,  — 

Chiefly  as  a  verb.     "  lie  is  supposed  to  have  gone." 

Partially  as  an  adverb.     "  I  came  to  see  you."     (Came  why  ?) 

Partially  as  an  adjective.      "  An  opportunity  to  study." 

Partially  as  a  noun.     "  To  have  learned  the  art,  will  be  a  pleasure." 

In  combination  with  all  the  auxiliary  verbs  except  have  and  be.     "I  did  [to] 

write."     "  I  can  [/o]  study." 
Independently,  for  a  clause  or  a  sentence.     "  But,  to  proceed,"  etc. 

479.  In  its  substantive  sense,  the  infinitive  may  be  used,  — 
As  the  subject  of  a  verb.     *'  To  retreat  was  impossible." 

As  the  object  of  a  verb.     "  lie  wished  to  retreat." 
An  iafinitiv«  becomes  thos  the  object  of  a  verb  when  that  verb  is  tron$itiv«^ 


VERBS.  153 

As  the  ohjed  oi  about,  except,  or  but.     "  He  is  about  to  retreat.** 

As  a  pred/cate-nominative.     "  To  sin  is  to  sxiffur." 

As  un  appositive.     "  Delightlul  task  !  to  rear  tlio  tender  thought.** 

480.    An  infinitive  may  be  construed  with,  — 

A  noun.     "  He  lias  t!ie  courage  to  venture." 

A  pronoun.     "  Hear  Itim  sf)eak." 

An  adjective.     "  He  is  anxious  to  start." 

A  verb.     "  He  seems  to  prosper."     "  I  came  to  remain." 

An  adverb.     "  He  knows  whe7i  to  purchase." 

Strictly  speaking,  the  whole  phrase,  when  to  purchase,  depends  on  knovsa, 

A  preposition.     "  He  is  about  to  sell  his  farm." 

A  conjunction.     *'  He  is  wiser  than  to  believe  it." 

An  interjection,  clliptically.     "0,  to  be  in  such  a  condition ! " 

Strictly  speaking,  the  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  as  a  nominative  indei^ndent,  by 
exclamation. 

Be  is  often  combined  with  about  and  the  infinitive,  to  express  something 
as  future  and  impending  at  the  time  referred  to ;  as,  "  We  were  |  about  to 
start." 

Be,  in  some  of  the  tenses,  maybe  combined  with  the  infinitive,  to  express 
determination  or  design  ;  as,  "  They  arc  |  to  be  sold." 

Have  is  often  combined  with  the  infinitive,  to  express  obligation  or  ne- 
cessity ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  \  to  pay  it." 

The  verbs  seem,  appear,  suppose,  etc.,  are  often  combined  with  the  infini- 
tive, to  modify  or  soften  the  assertion ;  as,  "  She  seems  to  know  but  little." 

481 «  To  is  omitted  when  the  infinitive  is  combined  with  an 
auxiliary  verb. 

Ex.  —  "  He  does  [to]  studij."    "  I  can  [to]  sludj  "  ==  I  am  able  to  study. 

482.  To  is  omitted  after  the  active  verbs  hid,  make,  need, 
hear,  \  let,  see,  feel,  and  dare ;  after  let  in  the  passive  voice ; 
sometimes  after  have,  help,  please,  find,  and  equivalents  of  see  ; 
and  sometimes  after  a  conjunction,  or  in  colloquial  expressions. 

Ex.  —  "Let  us  \to\  sinrj."     "I  heard  him  [/o]  say  it." 
[It  is]  '•  Better  [to]  lose  than  [to]  be  disgraced." 

About  seven  hundred  years  ago  the  infinitive  had  the  endinp  en  or  an  In  stead  of  the 
prefix  to.  The  c<;mbiaations  of  the  infinitive  with  auxiliaries,  and  with  most  of  the  fore- 
go! njj  verbs,  were  then  or  previously  made  ;  and  it  would  therefore  lie  more  appropriate 
to  say  that  these  verbs  are  followed  by  the  OLD  infinitive,  which  had  not  to  j  as,  "Heo 
conue  epeken"  =«  They  can  speak. 

7* 


154  _  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

483t  A  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  expresses 
the  act  or  state  Avithout  predicatmg  it,  and  generally  re- 
sembles an  adjective. 

Ex.  —  "  A  tree,  bending  with  fruit,  fell  to  the  ground." 

Observe  that/c//,  and  not  bendin'j,  predicates  sometliing  of  tree  ;  also  that  the  phrase, 
hendimj  witk  fruit,  is,  like  an  adjective,  descriptive  of  the  tKe. 

484 1  There  are  two  participles ;  the  present  and  the 
perfect^  each  of  which  is  either  simple  or  compound. 

Present  Participle. 
485,  The  Present  Participle  represents  the  act  or 
state  as  present  and  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex.  — "  We  saw  the  moon  rising" 

"  Being  thus  tvounded,  he  can  not  return  to  his  regiment." 

486t  The  simple  present  participle  is  made  by  annex- 
ing ing  to  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb. 
Ex.  —  Catch,  catching  ;  hide,  hiding ;  dig,  digging. 

487.  The  simple  present  participle,  of  a  transitive  verb, 
is  nearly  always  in  the  active  voice. 

Ex.  —  "The  bee,  stinging  the  boy,  soon  set  itself  free." 

488.  In  some  connections  this  participle  can  be  used 
in  the  passive  voice. 

Ex.  — "  Virgil  describes  some  spirits  as  bleaching  in  the  winds, 
others  as  deansing  [i.  e.,  being  clean!<ed~\  under  great  falls  of  water, 
and  others  as  purging  in  fire,  to  recover  the  primitive  beauty  and 
purity  of  their  nature."  —  Addison.  "I  could  easily  see  what  loas 
doing  on  the  other  side  of  the  river."  —  Bulwer. 

Perfect  Participle. 

489.  The  Perfect  Participle  represents  the  act  or 
state  as  completed  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex.  —  "A  fox,  caught  in  a  trap." 

"A  fox,  having  caught  a  hen,  met  the  owner  "  etc. 


VERBS.  155 

190.  TliG  simple  perfect  partlclj^le  is  made  by  annex- 
ing ed  to  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb ;  or  it  is  an  ir- 
regular form,  given  in  the  list  of  irregular  verbs. 

Ex.  —  Viith^  pitched ;  give,  given;  see,  seen;  teaieh,  taught. 

491.  The  simple  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb 
is  either  active  or  passive. 

492.  It  is  in  the  active  voice^  when  Jiave  in  any  of  its 
forms  is  combined  with  it. 

Ex.  —  Having  given.  To  have  given,  I  have  given.  I  had  given. 
I  shall  have  given. 

493.  It  is  in  the  passive  voice,  — 

1.  When  it  stands  by  itself. 

Ex.  —  "  The  apple  eaten  by  Eve  was  the  first  temptation." 

2.  When  he  in  any  of  its  forms,  is  combined  with  it. 
Ex.  —  "  The  apple  was  given  to  Eve  to  be  eaten  by  her." 

494.  The  simple  perfect  participle  of  some  verbs  can 
be  used  as  a  present  participle. 

Ex.  —  "  He  lives  loved  by  all." 

Compound  Participle. 

495.  A  Compound  Participle  is  one  that  consists  of 
heincf,  having,  or  having  been,  combined  with  some  other 
participle. 

Being,  having,  and  having  &ecn,  thus  become  auxiliary  parti- 
ciples to  other  participles. 

Ex,  —  Written  ;  being  written,  having  written,  having  been  written. 

496.  Being  is  used  chiefly  to  express  the  present  pas- 
sive participle. 

Ex.  —  "  The  soldier,  being  wounded,  was  carried  to  the  hospital. 

The  act  of  wounding  is  past ;  but  he  still  remains  in  the  wounded  state. 

The  compound  participle,  thus  formed,  generally  expresses  the  present  con- 
tinuance of  a  completed  act,  rather  than  the  present  receiving  of  the  act. 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

497.  Having  is  used  chiefly  to  express  the  perfect 
active  participle  of  transitive  verbs,  or  to  express  the 
participle  in  time  that  corresponds  to  some  perfect  tense. 

Ex.  —  Loved,  having  loved.  "  Having  said  this,  he  withdrew  "  == 
When  he  had  said  this,  he  withdrew.  ^^  Having  learned  the  lesson, 
you  may  play  "  =  Since  or  when  you  have  learned  the  lesson,  etc. 

498.  Having  been  is  used  chiefly  to  express  the  per- 
fect pai'ticiple  corresponding  to  the  compound  present 
passive  participle,  or  to  the  simple  perfect  passive  parti- 
ciple that  is  present  in  time. 

"  The  soldier,  having  been  wounded,  was  recognized  by  the  scar.** 

Loved,  having  been  loved  ;  occupied,  having  been  occupied. 

Occasionally,  the  auxiliary  participles  arc  used  for  other  purposes,  of 
which  the  principal  are,  to  exclude  predication,  to  distinguish  voice,  to  dis- 
tinguish cause  from  condition,  to  show  more  distinctly  the  participial  sense, 
and  to  give  more  distinctly  the  sense  of  a  clause  to  the  participial  phrase. 

"  This  being  proved,  the  conclusion  is  irresistible."  Proved,  without  be* 
ing,  would  seem  to  be  a  finite  verb,  and  in  the  active  voice.  "  The  army 
did  not  march,  being  ill  prodded,"  implies  cause  ;  "  The  army  did  not  march 
ill  provided,"  implies  con<lition.  "  Being  admired  and  applauded,  she  be- 
came vain,"  is  simply  a  little  more  forcible  or  formal  than,  "Admired  and. 
applauded,  she  became  vain."  It  is  thus  that  simple  and  compound  parti- 
ciples approach  so  nearly  in  meaning  that  they  arc  sometimes  almost  equiv- 
alent. 

A  compound  participle  that  consists  of  been  placed  between  two  parti- 
ciples that  end  each  with  ing,  is  frequently  found  ;  as,  "having  been  stand- 
ing." But  a  compound  participle  that  consists  of  being  combined  with 
Bome  other  participle  that  als©  ends  with  irig,  is  seldom  found ;  as,  "  being 
standing."  Good  writers  generally  prefer  to  change  the  form  of  expres- 
sion ;  as,  •'  The  inhabitants,  being  starving,  surrendered  " ;  better,  "  The 
inhabitants,  being  in  a  starving  condition,  surrendered." 

From  what  has  thus  far  been  said  of  participles,  wo  may  infer,  — 

1.  That  intrnvfitive  verbs  bave  three  particinle!«,  or  participial  form^,  —  the 
present,  the  perfect,  and  the  compound;  as,  Rising,  risen,  having  risen. 

Risen  is  used  chiefly  in  combination,  having  risen  is  used  alone. 

2.  That  tmvsitlre  verbs  bnve  s')x  participle?,  three  in  each  voice,  —  the  pres- 
ent, the  perfect,  and  tlie  compound;  but  that  of  these  six  the  perfect  active 
can  be  used  onlv  in  combination  with  have,  thus  leaving  hwt  fj-e  participles 
that  can  be  used  alone.  We  may  also  observe  that  the  compound  participle 
has  three  forms. 


VERBS.  167 

Ex.  —       Active  :  Bulldititj,  -hiilu,  Imtinfj  hitUt. 

Passive:  Being  (juilt,  l/ui/t,  hrtving  Oieit  built. 
Compound  :  Banff  built,  having  built,  having  been  huiU. 
Obserre  here  that  being  built  is  not  only  a  somewhat  clumsy  form,  but  that  it  does 
not  strictly  express  the  progressive  passive  sense  -,  therefore  buildiny  is  sometimes  com- 
pelled to  serve  in  its  place.  Observe  also  that  the  active  t)iiiU  has  the  same  torm  as  the 
passive  ;  but  as  ttie  passive  was  more  neeried,  the  active  built  Uk  the  field  to  the  pav 
Bive,  aud  having  built  came  iu  to  supply  the  place  of  the  former. 

Syntax  of   Participles. 

499.  A  participle  may  express  something  subordinate, — 

As  the  cavise.    "John,  being  tired,  went  to  bed." 

As  the  means.     "  The  horse  charged  upon  the  wolves,  striking  them  with 

his  fore  feet." 
As  the  manner.     "  The  cars  came  rattling."  —  Sec  Soathcy's  Lodore. 
As  the  time.     "Having  taken  shelter  here,  he  saw  an  ant,"  etc. 
As  the  state.     "  lie  became  attached  to  us." 
As  the  accompaniment.     "•  She  sat  near,  reading  a  book." 
As  the  condition.     "Circling  round,  you  may  approach  on  the  other  side." 
As  the  respect  wherein.     "  I  consider  him  as  having  lust  his  right." 

500.  A  participle  may  be  used, — 

Chieily  as  a  verb.     "  Seeing  me,  he  approaclied." 

Chiefly  as  an  adjective.     "  States  severed,  discordant,  belligerent." 

"Wholly  as  an  adjective.     "Literestinj  stories."     "Farming  utensils." 

Chiefly  as  an  adverb.    *'  The  horse  sleeps standing.^^    (How  ?) 

Wholly  as  an  adverb.     "  Scalding  hot." 

Partially  as  a  noun.     "By  sending  those  books  immediately." 

"Wholly  as  a  noun.    "  By  the  immediate  sending  of  those  books.'* 

In  combination  with  the  auxiliary  be,  to  express  the  passive  form.     "  They 

were  shot." 
In  combination  with  the  auxiliary  be,  to  express  the  progressive  form. 

"  They  were  shooting.^' 
In  combination  with  the  auxiliary  have,  to  express  the  perfect  tenses.    "  I 

have  seen*'     "  I  had  seen,"     "  I  shall  have  seen." 
Absolutely  with  a  substantive.    "  The  bells  having  rung,  we  went  to  churck." 
Absolutelif  after  an  infinitive.     "  To  go  prepared,  is  necessary." 
Independently,  in  the  sense  of  a  clause.    "  Generally  speaking,  few  men,"  etc. 

501 .  In  its  substantive  sense  the  participle  may  be  used,  -^ 
As  the  subject  of  a  verb.     *'  Reading  is  taught  daily." 

As  the  object  of  a  verb.    "  He  teaches  reading  and  writing." 

As  the  object  of  a  preposition.     "  By  reading  the  book." 

As  a  predicate-nominative.     "  To  die  for  her  is  serving  thee."  —  JJolmeg. 

This  last  construction  occurs  io  frequently  In  pood  writers  that  it  must  b«  allonred  when 
the  sense  is  obvious,  especially  in  verse  ;  though  the  infiuitiva  would  be  l>etter,  for  i$ 
serving  might  in  »omc  oonBtructions  appear  to  be  a  verb. 


158  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Participles  and  Infinitives. 
Agreements. 

5C2.  Participles  and  infinitives  have  voice,  some^thing  of 
tense,  but  neither  person  nor  number. 

503.  Participles  and  infinitives  are  annexed  to  auxiliary 
verbs,  to  expiess  all  those  parts  of  the  verb  which  it  can  not 
express  by  itself. 

501.  Participles  and  infinitives  partake  of  the  nature  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

505.  Participles  and  infinitives  lose  the  idea  of  time  as  they 
become  nouns  or  adjectives. 

506.  Participles  and  infinitives  become  verbal  nouns  when 
they  assume  case  ;  and  they  may  then  be  used  in  any  case  ex- 
cept the  possessive. 

*'  To  be  despised  is  the  consequence  o^  meddling. '"  "What  is?  and  of  what? 

Mr.  Gould  Brown  repudiates  this  extension  of  case.  But  case,  in  Enplish,  is  a  relation 
as  welfasa  lorm  of  vrords  ;  and  had  he  been  better  actiuaiiited  with  foreijin  laiif^uafres, 
especially  the  Greek,  in  which  the  articl-  is  even  declined  before  the  infinitive,  he  would 
probably  have  come  to  a  different  conclusion. 

Only  participles  that  end  with  ing,  and  compound  participles,  can 
be  used  as  nouns. 

507.  By  virtue  of  their  verbal  sense,  verbal  nouns  may  gov- 
ern other  substantives  in  the  objective  case,  or  be  modified  ad- 
verbially. 

Ex. — "  To  consider  \  sometimes  the  consequences  of  our  actions,  is  onr  dntr." 
Such  participles  and  infinitives  may  be  parsed  first  as  participles  and  inflaitives,  and 
theu  they  may  be  disposed  of  substantively  in  syntax. 

Differences. 

5^8.  Participles  are  combined  with  the  auxiliaries  he  and 
have;  infinitives.,  with  all  other  auxiliaries. 

Participles.  Infinitives. 

I  am  writing.  I  can  [to]  stud;/. 

I  was  struck.  I  did  [to]  stitdi/. 

I  had  been  writing.  I  might  [/o]  have  studied. 

I  have  written.  I  shall  [to]  study. 

To  is  used  here  simply  to  show  the  infinitives  ;  for  the  in&nitires  of  these  old  syntactical 
combinatiooa  uevcr  had  to,  bat  ao  ending  in  the  place  of  it. 


VERBS.  159 

W.  The  ground  is  froze.  The  sun  has  rose. 

My  horse  was  stole.  The  coat  is  wore  out. 

The  slate  is  broke.  I  might  have  went. 

So,  on  the  contrary,  participles  should  not  be  used  for  the  past  tense. 
I  seen  him.    (Seep.  122.)    He  done  it.    He  be^n  well. 
We  drunk  but  little.  I  knowed  it.  —  See  IT  3G9. 

509.  Participles  are  used  after  prepositions ;  infinitives  are 
generally  required  in  connection  with  finite  verbs. 

Ex.  —  "  You  will  lose  nothing  by  helping  him." 
"  To  defer  the  matter  is  to  give  it  up." 

510.  Participles  may  become  concrete,  and  even  assume 
number;  infinitives  never  do,  but  remain  strictly  abstract. 

Ex.  —  "  To  lodge  in  comfortable  lodgings.*^ 

511.  A  participle,  by  virtue  of  its  substantive  sense,  may 
govern  the  possessive  case;    an  infinitive^  never. 

Ex.  —  "  He  made  no  secret  j)f  w.// 1  having  written  the  review."  —  Irving. 

Such  possessives  are  condemned  by  Mr.  Brown  ;  but  they  are  abundantly  authorized 
by  trood  writers.  It  is  sometimes  better,  however,  to  use,  ia  stead  of  the  participle,  ar- 
orJinary  uoun,  or  a  clause  begiuning  with  that. 

512.  A  participial  noun  may  become  so  nearly  a  full  noun, 
as  to  require  an  adjective  rather  than  an  adverb. 

Ex.  —  "  By  carcfulli/ reading  the  book."     "By  a  careful  reading  of  the 

book."     *'  By  sloio  marching."   But,  "  To  march  sloivlgj' 

Only  participles  that  end  with  ing,  can  be  used  as  such  nonns. 

All  participles  thus  deprived  of  their  verbal  syntax  should  be  parsed  simply  as  partU 
g  clpial  uouQs. 

513.  A  participle  sometimes  becomes  an  adjective ;  an  in- 
finitive, never. 

Ex.  —  Participial  Adjectives:  '^  A  broken  lihcher" ;  "  Life's  ^/fcef- 
tn9  moments."  Sometimes  the  participle  becomes  a  mere  adjective ;  as, 
"  This  is  surprising  "  =  wonderful.  —  See  p.  221. 

Only  the  simple  participles  can  be  used  as  adjectives. 

514.  Infinitives  lean  more  to  predicates  and  substantives  ; 
participles,  to  modifiers. 

Participles  and  infinitives  form  a  very  important  circuit  of  expres- 
sions between  finite  verbs  and  other  parts  of  speech. 


160  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

CONJUGATION. 

515.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  proper  combi- 
nation and  arrangement  of  its  parts,  in  their  full  order. 

•'  In  their  full  order,"  —  that  is,  in  all  the  persons  and  numbers  of  each  mood,  tense,  etc. 
Conjugation  embraces  all  the  persons  and  numbers  ;  synopsis,  only  one  person  and 
number. 

5IC.  A  Synopsis  of  a  verb  is  only  an  outline  of  it, 
which  shows  its  parts  in  a  single  person  and  number, 
through  the  moods  and  tenses. 

Syxopsis  of  wriie,  with  I,  througli  the  indicative  mood ;  — 
Present,   I  write.  Present- Perfect,  J  have  tcritten. 

Past,         I  wrote.  Past-Perfect,        I  had  written. 

Future,    /  shall  write.  Future-Perfect,    /  diaU  have  written. 

517.  Most  forms  of  the  verb  consist  of  auxiliaries 
combined  with  participles  or  infinitives ;  and  such  forms 
may  be  called  composite,  • 

The  present  and  the  past  are  the  forms  mostly  used 
without  auxiliary  verbs. 

In  rrcncral,  verbs  branch  out  thus :  They  have  moods :  moods  have 
tenses;  tenses  have  forms ;  and  forms  have/)ensons  and  numbers. 

.    518.  The  irregular  verb  BU  is  conjugated  thus :  — 
PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present.  Past.  Present  Participle.        Perfect  Participle 

Be  or  am,         was,  being,  been. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
SiKGULAn.  Plural. 

First  Person.     I  am,  1.  We  are, 

Second  Person,    You  are,  2.  You  are, 

Third  Person.    lie,  she,  or  it,  is  ;     3.  They  are. 
Formerly,  he  was  used  in  stead  of  am,  are,  is,  etc 


VERBS. 


161 


Present-Perfect  Tense. 


SlWOULAR. 

1.  1  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been ; 

1.  I  was, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  He  was; 


Plural. 

1.  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  They  have  been. 

Past  Tense. 

1.  We  were, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  They  were. 


Past-Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  had  been,  1.  We  had  been, 

2.  You  had  been,  2.  You  had  been. 


3.  He  had  been 


3.  They  had  been. 


Future  Tense. 
Simple  futurity;  foretelling. 

1.  T  shall  be,  1.  We  shall  be, 

2.  You  will  be,  2.  You  will  be, 

3.  He  will  be  ;  3.  They  will  be. 

Promise,  threat,  or  determination. 

1.  I  will  be,  1.  We  will  be, 

2.  You  shall  be,  2.  You  shall  be, 

3.  He  shall  be  ;  3.  They  shall  be. 

Future-Perfect  Tense. 
Simple  futurity ;  foretelling. 

1.  I  shall  have  been,  1.  We  shall  have  been, 

2.  You  will  have  been,  2.  You  will  have  been, 

3.  He  will  have  been  ;  3.  They  will  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 


1.  If  I  be, 

2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he  be; 


1.  If  we  be,' 

2.  If  you  be, 
8.  If  they  be. 


162  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK. 

Past  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were,         Were  I,         1.  If  we  were,       Were  we, 

2.  If  you  were,    Were  you,    2.  If  you  were.     Were  you, 

3.  If  he  were;  or.  Were  he;  3.  If  they  were;  or,  Were  they. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  1.  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  you  had  been,  2.  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been  ;  3.  If  they  had  been. 

Or  thus:  — 

1.  Had  I  been,  1.  Had  we  been, 

2.  Had  you  been,  2.  Had  you  been, 

3.  Had  he  been  ;  3.  Had  they  been. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

1.  I  may  be,  1.  We  may  be, 

2.  You  may  be,  2.  You  may  be, 

3.  He  may  be  ;  3.  They  may  be. 
In  the  same  way  conjugate  can  be  and  must  be. 

Present-Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1.  We  may  have  been, 

2.  You  may  have  been,  2.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been  ;  3.  They  may  have  been. 
In  the  sanae  way  conjugate  must  have  been  and  "  Can  I  have  beea?" 

Past  Tense. 

1.  I  might  be,  1.  We  might  be, 

2.  You  might  be,  2.  You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be  ;  3.  They  might  be. 
In  the  same  way  conjugate  coidd  be,  would  be,  and  should  be, 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  1.  We  might  have  been, 

2.  You  might  have  been,         2.  You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been  ;  3.  They  might  have  been. 

In  the  same  way  conjugate  could  have  been,  vx>uld  have  been,  and  should 
have  been. 


VERBS.  .  163 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be  thou  ;  or,  Do  thou  be.       2.  Be  ye  ;  or,  Do  ye  be. 

Present.  Perfect.  Compound. 

INFINITIVES.  — To  be.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES.  —  Being.  -Been.  Having  been. 

Synopsis  of  the  verb  be^  with  thou, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  Thou  art. 

Present-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  hast  been. 

Past  Tense,  Thou  wast,  or  wert 

Past-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  hadst  been. 

Future  Tense,  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be. 

Future- Perfect  Tense,  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been.  ' 

"  Thou  wtrt,  thou  art,  the  cheriahed  madaess  of  my  heart."  —  Byron, 
SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  If  thou  be. 

Past  Tense,  If  thou  wert ;  or,  Wert  thou. 

Past-Perfect  Tense,  If  thou  hadst  been  ;  or,  Hadst  thou  been. 

"  If  thou  were,^^  and  "  If  thou  had  been^''  are  sometimes  used  by  good  writers. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  be. 
Present-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  have  been. 
Past  Tense,  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  be. 
Past-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst 
have  been. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
P'-csent  Tense,  Be  thou ;  or,  Do  thou  be. 


164  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

519t  The  regular  verb  BOWis  conjugated  thus:  — 
PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present.  Past.  Present  Participle.        Perfect  Participle. 

Eow^         rowed,  rowing,  rowed. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 
Present  Tense, 

SiNOUIAB.  PlDRAIm 

1.  I  row,  1.  We  row, 

2.  You  TOW,  2.  You  row, 

3.  He  rows ;  3.  They  row. 

C^T*  Let  the  verbs  love,  rule,  permit,  carry,  strike,  and  see,  be  novr  conju- 
gated in  the  same  way  by  other  members  of  the  class.  So,  in  each  following 
tense. 

Emphatic    Farm. 

Do,  combined  with  the  present  infinitive.* 

1 .  I  do  row,  1 .  We  do  row, 

2.  You  do  row,  2.  You  do  row, 

3.  He  does  row ;  3.  They  do  row. 

Present-Perfect  Tense. 
Have,  combined  with  the  perfect  participle. 

1.  I  have  rowed;  1.  We  have  rowed, 

2.  You  liave  rowed,  2.  You  have  rowed, ' 

3.  lie  has  rowed ;  3.  They  have  rowed. 

In  the  solemn  style,  hatJif  roweOif  and  doth  row  are  used  for  haa,  rows,  and 
doe»  row. 


Past  Tense. 

1.  I  rowed, 

1.  We  rowed. 

2.  You  rowed, 

2.  You  rowed, 

3.  He  rowed ; 

3.  They  rowed. 

*  The  infinitive,  in  combining  with  anxiliarr  verbs,  drons  the  sign  to ;  and 
these  composite  forms  tend  to  sliow  that  tlie  present  phoulu  be  considered  the 
present  infinitive  r^xXher  thiLXi  i\\e  present  indicative s  but  since  the  latter  is  also 
needed  as  a  principal  part,  it  may  bo  well  to  call  the  present  either. 

The  English  infinitive,  as  we  have  already  said,  formerly  had  the  ending  an  or 
tn  instead  of  the  prefix  to;  and  hence  each  primitive  combinations  of  verba  as 
Kiost  bare  been  loade  with  ao^HiarieSi  ^re  without  the  sign  io^ 


VERBS.  166 

Emphatic  Form. 

Did,  combined  with  the  present  infinltiye. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  did  row,  1.  We  did  row, 

2.  You  did  row,  2.  You  did  row, 

3.  He  did  row  ;  3.  They  did  row, 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 
Had,  combined  with  the  perfect  participle. 

1.  I  had  rowed,  1.  We  had  rowed, 

2.  You  had  rowed,  2.  You  had  rowed, 

3.  He  had  rowed ;  3.  They  had  rowed. 

Future  Tense. 

Shall  or  will,  combined  with  the  present  infinitive. 
Simple  futurity ;  foretelling. 

1.  I  shall  row,  1.  We  shall  row, 

2.  You  will  row,  2.  You  will  row, 

3.  He  will  row ;  3.  They  will  row. 

Promise,  threat,  or  determination. 

1.  I  will  row,  1.  We  will  row, 

2.  You  shall  row,  2.  You  shall  row, 

3.  He  shall  row  ;  3.  They  shall  row. 

Puture-Perfeot  Tense. 

Shall  or  tcill,  combined  with  the  perfect  infinitive. 

Simple  futurity ;  foretelling. 

1.  I  shall  have  rowed,  1.  We  shall  have  rowed. 

2.  You  will  have  rowed,  2.  You  will  have  rowed, 

3.  He  will  have  rowed  ;  3.  They  will  have  rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood  are  formed  like  those  of  the  indicative. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  If  I  row,  1.  If  wo  row, 

2.  If  you  row,  2.  If  you  row, 

3.  If  he  row  ;  3.  If  they  row. 


166  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

flmphatic  Form. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  do  row,  1.  If  we  do  row, 

2.  If  you  do  row,  2,  If  you  do  row, 

3.  If  he  do  row  ;  3.  If  they  do  row. 

Past  Tense. 

1.  If  I  rowed,  1.  If  we  rowed, 

2.  If  you  rowed,  2.  If  you  rowed, 

3.  If  he  rowed  ;  3.  If  they  rowed. 

Emphatic   Form. 

1.  If  I  did  row,  1.  If  we  did  row, 

2.  If  you  did  row,  2.  If  you  did  row, 

3.  If  he  did  row ;  3.  If  they  did  row. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 

1.  If  I  had  rowed,  1.  If  we  had  rowed, 

2.  If  you  had  rowed,  2.  If  you  had  rowed, 

3.  If  he  had  rowed;  3    If  they  had  rowed. 

Or  thus :  — 

1.  Had  I  rowed,  1.  Had  we  rowed, 

2.  Had  3^ou  rowed,  2.  Had  you  rowed, 

3.  Had  he  rowed  ;  3.  Ilad  they  rowed. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

May,  can,  or  must,  combined  with  the  present  infinitive. 

1.  I  may  row,  1.  We  may  row, 

2.  You  may  row,  ,  2.  You  may  row, 

3.  'He  may  row  ;  3.  They  may  row. 

Present-Perfect  Tense. 
Mai/,  ^^^1  or  must,  combined  with  the  perfect  infinitive. 

1.  I  may  have  rowed,  1.  We  may  have  rowed, 

2.  You  may  have  rowed,         2.  Yon  may  have  rowed, 

3.  He  may  have  rowed  ;  3.  They  may  have  rowed. 
In  the  same  way  conjugate  must  have  rowed. 


VERBS.  16T 

!Past  Tense. 

Might,  could,  would,  or  sliould^  combined  with  the  present  infinitive. 
S1NGUI.AR.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  row,  1.  We  might  row, 

2.  You  might  row,  2.  You  might  row, 

3.  He  might  row;  3.  They  might  row. 
In  the  same  way  conjugate  could  row,  would  row,  and  should  row. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 
Might,  could,  woidd,  or  should,  combined  with  the  perfect  infinitive. 

1.  I  might  have  rowed,        1.  We  might  have  rowed, 

2.  You  might  have  rowed,    2.  You  might  have  rowed, 

3.  He  miglit  have  rowed;    3.  They  might  have  rowed. 

In  the  same  way  conjugate  could  have  rowed,  would  have  rowed,  and  should 
liavc  rowtd. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

2.  Row  thou ;  or,  Do  thou  row.     2.  Row  ye ;  or.  Do  ye  row. 

Present.  Perfect.  Compound. 

INFINITIVES  —  To  row.       To  have  rowed. 
PARTICIPLES.  —  Rowing.    *  Rowed.  Having  rowed. 

Synopsis  of  the  verb  row,  with  thou, 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  Thou  rowest,  or  dost  row. 
Present' Perfect  Tense,  Thou  hast  rowed. 
Past  Tense,  Thou  rowedst,  or  didst  row. 
Past-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  hadst  rowed. 
Future  Tense,  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  row. 
Future- Perfect  Tense,  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  If  thou  row,  or  do  row. 
Past  Te/ise,  If  thou  rowed,  didst  row, -or  did  row. 
Past-Perfect  Tense,  If  thou  hadst  rowed. 

*  The  simple  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb,  ia  the  active  voice,  is  used  onl7  In 
combination  with  the  auxiliary  verb  have. 


168 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  row. 
Present-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  have  rowed. 
Past  Tense,  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  row. 
Past-Perfect  Tense,  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst 
have  rowed. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  Row  thou ;  or,  Do  thou  row. 


The  Passive  Form  and  the  Progressive  Form  of  the  Verb  Row* 

The  passive  or  the  progressive  form  of  any  tense  consists  of  the 
corresponding  tense  of  the  verb  be,  combined  with  the  simple  perfect 
or  present  participle. 


INDICxVTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

SlNGULAK. 

Neuter.  Passive.  Progressive. 
^  r  1.  I  am  rowed,  rowing, 

S  ■<  2.  You  are      rowed,  rowing, 
^  (  3.  He  is  rowed;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  We  are  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  are  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  are  rowed,  rowing. 

The  pupil  should  first  conjugate  through 
-ach  three  persons  the  verb  be,  then  the 
passive  verb,  then  the  verb  in  the  progres- 
sive form. 

Present-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  I  have  been       rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  have  been  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  has  been      rowed;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  We  have  been    rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  have  been  rowed,  rowing, 
8.  They  have  been  rowed,  rowing. 


Past  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  I  -was  rowed,  roicing, 

2.  You  were  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  was  rowed;  rowing  ; 

Plural. 

1.  We  were  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  were  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  were  rowed,  rowing. 

Past-Perfect  Tense. 
Singular. 

1.  I  had  been         rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  had  been    rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  had  been      rowed;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  We  had  been     rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  had  been    rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  had  been  rowed,  rowing. 

Future  Tense. 

Simple  futurity  •,  foretelling. 

Singular. 

1. 1  shall  be  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  will  be        rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  will  be         rowed;  rowing; 


VERBS. 


mi 


Plural. 

1.  We  shall  be        rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  Avill  be         rowed,  rowing, 

3.  Tliey  will  bo  rowed*  rowing. 

Promise,  threat,  or  determination. 

SlXGULAU. 

1.  I  will  be  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  shall  be      rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  shall  be  rowed;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  "We  will  be         rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  shall  be       rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  shall  be     rowed,  rowing. 

Future-Perfect  Tense. 

Simple  futurity  ;  foretelling. 
Singular. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  will  have  been        rowed,  rowing, 
S.  He  will  have  been  rowed  ;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  TVe  shall  have  been        rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  will  have  been        rowed,  rowing, 
S,  They  will  have  been      rowed,  rowing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  If  you  be  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  If  he  be  rowed ;  rowing ; 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  If  you  be  rowed,  rowing, 

3.  If  they  be  rowed,  rowing. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  were  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  If  you  were        rowed,  rowing, 

3.  If  he  were         rowed;  rowing  ; 

8 


Plural. 
If  we  were         rowed. 
If  you  were         roived. 
If  they  were       rowed. 

Or  thus :  — 
Singular. 
Were  I  rowed. 

Were  you  rowed, 

Were  he  rowed; 

Plural. 
Were  we  rowed, 

"Were  you  rowed. 

Were  they  rowed. 


romng^ 
rowing^ 
rowing* 


rowing, 
rowing, 
rotving; 

rowing., 
romngy 
rotving* 


Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular. 
If  I  had  been     rowed,  rowing^ 
If  you  had  been  rowed,  rowing. 
If  he  had  been  rowed;  rowings 

Plural. 
If  we  had  been  rowed,  rowing, 
If  you  had  been  rowed,  rowing. 
If  they  had  been  rowed,  rowing. 
Or  thus :  — 
Singular. 
Had  I  been       rowed,  rowing, 
Had  you  been    rowed,  rowing. 
Had  he  been     rowed ;  rowing ; 

Plural. 
Had  we  been     roimd,  rowing. 
Had  you  been    rowed,  roimng, 
Had  they  been  rowed,  rowing. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 
1. 1  may  be  rowed,  roicing 

2.  You  may  be      rowed,  rowing, 

3,  He  may  be        rowed;  rotoing; 


170 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAB. 


Plural. 

1.  "We  may  be        rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  may  be        rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  may  be      rowed,  rowing. 
In  like  maimer  conjugate  can  be  and 

must  be. 

Present-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  I  may  hare  been  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  may  have  been        rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  may  have  been         rowed;  rowing; 

Plural, 

1.  We  may  hare  been        rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  may  have  been        rowed,  rowing, 
8.  They  may  have  been     rowed,  rowing. 

In   like  manner  coqjugate  mu$t  have 
been. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular. 
1. 1  might  be         rowedy  rowing, 

2.  You  might  be    rowed,  rowing, 

3.  He  might  be      rowed;  rowing ; 

Plural. 

1.  We  might  be      rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  might  be     rowed,  rowing, 

3.  They  might  be   rowed,  rowing. 

In    like    manner    conjugate    could  be, 
would  be,  and  should  be. 

The  synopsis  with  thou  is  similar  to  the  synopsis  given  on  p.  163. 

When  neither  of  the  foregoing  forms  of  the  verb  can  express  the  prngret- 
sive  passive  senee,  the  compound  present  passive  particip'e  is  sometimes 
joined  to  the  verb  be  in  stead  of  the  simple  perfect  or  present  participle  :  in 
other  words,  Afinj7  is  pnt  into  the  common  passive  verb,  between  the  anxiliary 
and  the  participle.  These  clnmsy  forms,  however,  are  n«nally  tolerated  only 
in  the  present  and  the  past  indicative  and  the  past  subjunctive.  —  See  p.  307. 


Past-Perfect  Tense. 

Singular. 

1.  I  might  have  been  rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  might  have  been     rowed,  rowing, 

3.  lie  might  have  been       rowed;  rowing; 

Plural. 

1.  We  might  have  been      rowed,  rowing, 

2.  You  might  have  been     rowtd,  rowing, 

3.  They  might  have  been  rowed,  rowing. 

In  like  manner  conjugate  cou/d  have 
been,  would  have  been,  aud  should  have 
been. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

2.  Be  thou  rowed;  romng, 

Plural. 
2.  Be  ye  rowed,  rowing, 

INFINITIVES. 


Present. 
Perfect. 


Present. 
Perfect. 


To  be 

To  have  been 


rowed,  rowing, 
rowed,  rowing. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Being 


rowed. 
Bowed. 


Compound.  Having  been  rowed,  rowing. 


SiNGCLAR. 


_      f  1.  I  am  being:  educated, 
,i!!l!?r«o     \  2-  Vou  are  bein?  educated, 
dicative.    \  3,  He  is  being  educated;    ' 


Past  Indic- 
ative. 


Past  Pnb 
junctive 


ndic-  J  9*  V 

(1.  Tfl 
^2.  Ify, 
1 3.  If  il« 


was  beinjT  educated, 
on  were  beinp:  educated, 
e  was  being  educated; 

Tfl  were  beinjr  educated, 
on  were  being  educated, 
e  were  being  educated ; 


PirRAL. 

1.  We  are  beinjr  educated, 

2.  You  are  being  educated, 

3.  They  are  being  educated. 

1.  We  were  beinjr  educated, 

2.  You  were  beins:  educated, 
8.  They  were  being  educated. 

1.  Tf  we  .were  being  educated, 

2.  If  you  were  being  educated, 

3.  If  they  were  being  educated, 


VERBS.  171 


Exorcises. 

IIow  many  and  what  tenses  has  the  indicative  mood  ?  —  the  suhjanctlvet 

—  ihe  jiotaUiuLf — ihe  imperative?  What  injimtuts  are  therein  —  what 
particifAcn  t 

In  what  mood  and  tenso  do  you  find  dol — did7  —  liavel — had'\  — 
shad  or  wiUi  —  shaii  or  vodl  li<tw?  —  man,  can,  or  viust?  —  via;i,  can,  or 
mud  have  ?  —  miyUt,  could,  would,  or  should  i  —  uuijht,  could^  would,  or  sliould 
have  1 

What  is  the  sign  of  the  present  indicative  ?  —  the  past  ?  —  the  future?  — 
the  present-perfect  ?  —  tlio  ptisi-pertect  1  —  the  future  1  —  the  luture-per- 
feet  ?  —  the  present  subjunctive  ?  —  the  past  ?  —  the  past-perfect  1  —  tlie 
present  potential  ?  —  tUe  present-perfect  1  —  tlie  past  ?  —  tlie  past-perfect  ? 

Change  tlic  following  verhs  into  the  other  tenses  of  the  same  mood :  — 
I  write.     I  may  write.     If  1  write.     If  I  be  writing.  « 

Change  into  the  other  forms  of  the  same  tense  :  —  He  strikes.  He  struck. 
He  has  biruck.     You  ru.e.     You  ruled.     You  have  ruled. 

Give,  in  the  order  of  the  Conjugation,  the  infinitives,  then  the  parti- 
ciples ;  fir>t  in  the  a(  tive  voice,  and  then  in  the  passive,  if  the  verb  can 
have  the  passive  voice  :  —  Move,  rise,  spring,  degrade,  drown,  iuvigorate, 
ovcrwheiiu,  bleed. 

Give  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  he  with  7,  through  each  tense  of  all  the 
moods;  first  aflirnialivcly  throughout,  then  interrogatively,  then  negatively; 

—  niili  thou;  —  wiili  he; — with  they;  —  with  you.  Now  of  7  and  he  to- 
pcther,  or  iu  pairs,  through  all  the  tenses;  —  of  he  and  they ;  —  of  you  and 
tUoa. 

Give  in  like  manner  the  synopsis  of  see,  through  both  voices ;  of  love, 
hind,  carry,  aud  permit;  —  o(  rise,  in  the  progre^8ive  form. 

Give  thou  with  each  auxiliary  except  he;  —  give  he;  —  give  thei/. 

How  do  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  mood  agree  and  differ  in 
form? 

CorineatG  each  of  the  following  verbs,  beginning  with  the  first  person 
siniTuIarfand  stopping  with  the  subject :  —  The  boy  karns.  (Thus :  Sin- 
CULAIJ.  1st  person,  7  learn;  2d  person,  Yo^i  learn;  3d  person,  Ue,  or  the 
Inif,  learns  )  The  leaves  are  falling  Flowers  must  fade.  Jane  reads. 
Jane  and  Eliza  read.    Jane  or  Eliza  reads. 

Toll  of  what  mood  and  tense,  thrn  conjfigate  throughout  the  tense,  be- 
ginning v/ith  the  first  person  singular  :  —  1  imagine.  He  suffered.  Wc 
hnvc  lost  it.  I  had  been  f>lougbinir.  I  will  visit.  Were  I.  Had  1  bt^en. 
If  he  were.  Were  I  invited.  Had  I  been  invited.  If  I  be  invited.  They 
shall  have  written.  I  lay.  We  read.  It  may  pass.  You  sb.ould  l^ivc 
come.  We  mav  have  been  robbed.  I  was  speaking.  It  i.s  r's>"J.^,  >  ou 
m''eht  be  prenaring.  Had  vou  been  studying.  Do  vou  hope  ?  Did  ^he 
STiile?  If  I  do  fdl.  If  thoii  rely.  Thou  art.  Art  thou  ?  He  forgiveih. 
Dn^t  thou  not  forgive  ?  It  must  have  happened.  They  are  gone.  Thou 
art  going. 

Predicate  each  of  the  following  verbs  porrcrtly  of  thou ;  then  of  he,  and 
of  thfiif: — Am.  was,  have  been,  would  have  been,  are  deceived,  had  been, 
do  sav,  did  maintain,  gave,  touched,  cast,  amass,  recommend,  be  discour- 
aged,'shall  have  been,  will  pardon,  may  have  been  rejoicing,  was  elected, 
should  have  been  elected. 


172  ENGUSH  GRAilMAB. 

The  verbs,  and  wh/ :  — 

Rtgular  or  irrtfjular,  and  whj :  — 

Transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why;  with  voice,  and  why  :-— 

Mood  and  tense,  and  why  ;  with  emphatic  or  progressive  form,  and  why:  — 

Person  and  number,  and  why:  — 

He  is  reading  the  Bible.  We  have  slept.  She  died.  "Were 
wc  surpassed.  You  had  sent  him.  Take  care,  lest  you  lose  it. 
My  time  might  have  been  improved  better.  The  corn  was 
ripening.     The  wind  has  risen. 

For  n(1t1itian-jl  exercises,  if  needed,  use  the  examples  on  p.  104.  The  best  mode  of 
driliiiif;  pupils  on  verbs  is  simply  tliis  :  Whenever  tiici  pupil  parses  a  verb,  let  him  jrive 
the  synopsis  of  it  thrmsrh  Jill  the  preceding  moods,  or  only  through  the  moo.l  in  whicli  it 
is,  to  the  tense  in  which  if,  is  found;  then  let  him  cnnjajrata  it  to  the  person  and  number 
of  its  subject.    By  this  process  he  will  boon  become  master  of  all  parts  of  the  verb. 

ADVERBS. 
520t  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  mean- 
ing,— 

1.  Of  a  verb.     "  She  sm<xs  ^6'e??."     SinrrsJiow? 

2.  Of  an  adjective,     "  Ver7/  deep."     How  deep  ? 

8.  Of  another  adverb.    "  To  run  ver?/  fast."    How  fast? 

4.  Of  a  phrase.     "  He  sailed  nearly  \  round  the  world." 

5.  Of  a  clause^    *^  Even  \  as  a  miser  counts  his  gold, 

Those  hours  the  ancient  time-piece  told." 
Even  emphasizes  the  adverbial  clause  after  it ;  and  this  clause  modifies  told. 
A  p^hrase  or  a  clause  gom'times  has  the  meaning  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  5  and 
therefore  an  adverb  can  modify  such  a  phrase  or  clause. 

521.  Words  from  other  parts  of  speech,  especially  when 
Imitative,  are  sometimes  used  as  adverbs. 

"  Smack  went  the  whip,  round  went  the  wheels."  —  Cowper. 

522.  Some  idiomatic  phrases  are  commonly  used  as 
adverbs,  and  are  therefore  called  adverbial  phrases. 

In  general  =  generally.         In  vain,  as  yet, 

By  and  by  ==  soon.  at  least,  in  short, 

At  present  =  now.  at  last,  out  and  out. 

Most  adverbial  phrases  are  adjuncts  from  which  the  noun  has  beea  dropped. 

523.  Most  adverbs  modify  other  words  by  expressing 
manner  J  place,  time,  or  degree. 


ADVERBS.  17^ 

Frequently,  an  adverb  denotes  manner  when  it  modifies  a  verb, 
and  degree  wheu  it  modifies  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 
"  He  thinks  so'';  manntr.    "  He  writes  so  awkwardly  " ;  degree. 
"  IIow  did  you  do  it  ?  "  manner.    "  1  know  how  deep  it  is  ^'  {  degree. 

524.  A  Conjunctive  Adverb  is  an  adverb  that  usu- 
ally connects  two  clauses,  by  relating  to  a  word  in  one 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  other. 

\    When,        -while,        as,  before,        till,  ere, 

■where,        why,  how,       after,  since,      whereby,  etc. 

"  The  seed  grew  up  where  it  fell." 

XVliere  relates  to  grew  and  fell,  or  it  joins  to  the  word  grew  a  clause  denot* 
ing  place.  "  The  seed  grew  up  from  the  pUce  \  on  which  it  fell."  Where  is 
thus  resolved  into  two  phrases,  which  attach  themselves  respectively  to  each 
of  the  clauses,  and  the  latter  of  which  has  a  relative  pronoun. 

Sometimes  a  conjunctive  adverb  joins  a  phrase  to  8ome  word  or  clause,  in  stead  of 
uniting  two  clauses. 

525.  The  clause  which  has  the  conjunctive  adverb,  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun. 

"  You  speak  of  it  a  s  you  understand  it.''     How  ? 

" In  the  grave  where  our  hero  was  burled."    What  grave ? 

"  I  saw  how  a  pin  is  made."    I  saw  what  ? 

A  conjunctive  adverb  shows  merely  whether  its  clause  expresses  mnr^ 
tier,  timc^  place,  or  identity ;  and  it  is  sometimes  essentially  a  preposition  or 
a  conjunction. 

526.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  or  correlative  adverb 
is  expressed,  and  then  the  latter  adverb  modifies  its  own 
clause,  or  annexes  an  identifying  explanation. 

Ex.  —  "I  was  there  \  where  it  happened.**  Where  it  happened,  is 
explanatory  of  there,  somewhat  like  an  appositive.  So,  ^^No  w,  while 
it  is  cool,  let  us  work."    "  As  the  mother  is,  s  a  will  the  daughter  be." 

527.  Some  adverbs  of  addition,  exclusion,  emphasis,  or 
quantity,  may  relate  to  any  part  of  a  sentence. 

Ex.  —  "But  chiejiy  Thou,  O  Spirit,  ....  instruct  me." — Milton* 

" Take,  O  boatman,  thrice  thy  fee" 

"  Can  n  o  t  you  go  ?  "    "  Can  you  not  go  ?  **  are  different. 

Such  a  word  is  sometimes  best  parsed  as  an  adjective,  and  sometimes  as  A 
corgimction,  or  as  a  correlative  or  auxiliary  conjunction. 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

528.  Some  adverbs  are  the  equivalents  of  independent 
propositions,  and  some  appear  as  remnants  and  representa- 
tives of  such  propositions.  Such  adverbs  are  said  to  be 
Used  independently. 

Ex.  —  Yes,  no,  amen,  well,  why,  secondly,  nay,  thus. 

"  Yes;  there  is  a  remedy."     "  So,  so;  and  this  is  the  way,**  etc. 

"  Well,  I  hardly  know  what  to  say."     "  Whj,  you  must  be  crazy.**  i 

*'  Thus,  in  France  common  carriers  are  not  liable  for  robbery." 

Such  an  adverb  may  sometimes  be  parsed  as  modifying  the  entire  sentence 
or  the  preceding  sentence  or  discourse,  or  else  something  understood  ;  and 
sometimes  perhaps  better  as  a  conjunction  or  an  interjection,  for  most  such 
adverbs  liave  more  or  less  the  nature  of  conjunctions  or  interjections. 

529.  Adverbs  are  short  equivalents  for  phrases  or  pro- 
positions. 

Now  =  at  this  time.  Thus  =  in  this  manner. 

There  =  in  that  place.  In  vain  =  in  a  vain  manner. 

Where  =  in  what  place.        Occasionally  =  as  occasion  requires. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  generally  supplies  the  place  of  two  phrases;  as,  "  She 
was  buried  whtn  [a<  the  time  |  in  which  time]  the  suu  was  setting." 

530.  Many  adverbs  are  compound  words. 
Ex.  —  Indeed,  forever,  hereafter,  whithersoever,  afoot. 

531.  Most  adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives,  by  an- 
nexing If/,  sometimes  s,  to  the  adjective. 

Ex.  —  BrBLve,  bravely ;  easy,  easily  ;  upward,  upwards. 

Many  of  the  most  common  modifying  words  can  be 
used  in  the  same  form  either  as  adjectives  or  as  adverbs. 

Ex.  —  No,  well,  better,  best,  very,  more,  most,  hard,  long,  like, 
less,  least,  worse,  worst,  ill,  yonder,  fast,  late,  early. 

"  He  is  no  fool "  ;  adjective.     "  He  is  no  belter"  ;  adcerb. 

"  Few  men,  like  him,  fight " ;  adj.     "  Few  men  fight  like  him  " ;  adv. 

532.  In  poetry  and  in  compound  words,  the  adjective 

form  or  comparison  is  allowed  to  a  greater  extent  than 

elsewhere. 

"  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in  the  wall."  —  Dlmond. 
Here  twtet  is  aa  adrerb,  used  by  poetic  license  for  the  adverb  swectlif. 


ADVERBS.  175 

"  Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spnng."  —  Pope. 

Here  deep  is  an  adverb,  used,  by  ellipsis,  for  the  objective  phrase  deep  draughta» 
*'  Though  ihou  vniTt  Jirmlier  fastened  than  a  rock."  —  M'dlon. 
"  By  the  verdurous  banks  of  a  smooM-gliding  stream."  —  Moore. 
It  is  sometimes  dUHcuIt  to  tell  whether  a  given  word  is  or  should 
be  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

533.  To  express  manner  or  describe  the  act,  the  ad- 
verb should  be  used;  to  describe  the  object,  the  adjective. 

"  Things  look  [are]  favorable  this  morning  "  ;  adj. 
*'  He  looks  skillfully  at  the  moon,  through  his  telescope."     How  ? 
♦'  We  arrived  safe  " ;  i.  e.,  we  were  safe  when  we  arrived. 
W.  She  looks  beautifully  in  her  new  silk  dress. 

534*  When  the  verb  he  or  become  can  be  joined  to  the 
verb,  or  put  in  its  place,  the  modifying  word  is  or  should 
be  an  adjective, 

*'  The  waves  dashed  high  "  ;  i.  «.,  they  were  high,  and  dashed. 

"  Soft  blows  the  breeze  "  ;  i.  c,  it  is  soft,  and  blows. 

*'  He  spoke  better  ";  adv.      "  He  seemed  better,  felt  better  "  ;  adj. 

535*  A  word  may  remain  an  adjective,  and  qualify  a 
substantive,  when  the  adjoining  verb  shows  merely  how 
tlie  quality  is  acquired  or  made  known. 

"The  clay  burns  white."    "  The  milk  tastes  sour." 

"  The  glass  was  colored  blue.'*     "  Magnesia  feels  smooth.** 

"  Amid  her  smiles  her  blushes  lovelier  glow." 

"How  much  nearer  he  approaches  to  this  end!" 

The  verbs  look,  appear,  taste,  feel,  smell,  make,  and  other  verbs 
that  imply  transformation  of  the  subject,  ai'C  most  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  such  adjectives. 

Ill  the  sentence,  *' Previous  to  the  next  draft,  an  enrollment  of  all  the  men 
will  be  made,"  —  Newspaper,  —  previous  relates  to  the  entire  followin.!?  propo- 
sition; or,  rather,  previous  to  has  fallen  into  the  analogy  of  the  prepositions  ac-, 
cording  to  and  contrary  to.  —  See  p.  300. 

536.  Sometimes  an  adverb  becomes  a  noun. 

Ex.  —  "  For  once."     "  By  far  the  best."     "  We  have  enough.** 

Much,  little,  and  enough,  are  generally  nouas  after  transitive  verbs  •,  adverbs,  after 

Intraositire. 


176  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADVERBS. 
537.  Adverbs    are  compared  like  adjectivcfs ;    except 
tliat  a  smaller  number  can  be  compared,  and  that  these 
are  more  commonly  compared  bj  more  and  tnost. 

Regular. 

Soon,  sooner^  soonest.  Wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely. 
Long,  longer,  longest.  Wisely,  less  wisely,  least  wisely. 
Early,  earlier,  earliest.       Foolishly,  more  foolishly,  most  foolishly. 

Irregular. 

Well,  better,  best.  Little,  less,  least. 

Badly  or  ill,  worse,  worst.  Forth,  further,  furthest, 

]\Iuch,  more,  most.  Far,      farther,  farthest. 

Compare  the  foregoing  adverbs  with  the  adjectives  on  p.  113. 

CLASSES   OF    ADVERBS. 
1.  Adverbs  of  Manner. 


So, 

\rell, 

otherwise, 

separately. 

aloud. 

in  vain, 

as, 

ill, 

headlong, 

together, 

apart, 

in  brief, 

thus, 

like, 

fast, 

somehow. 

asunder, 

happily. 

how. 

else, 

slowly, 

however, 

atniss, 

trippingly. 

Most  words  that  end  with  ly,  are  adverbs  of  manner. 
Adverbs  of  manner  answer  to  the  question  Ilowf 

2.  Adverbs  of  Place. 

Here,  thence,  whither,  nowhere,  away,  in,  out, 

there,  whence,         herein,  everywhere,     aside,  back, 

where,         hither,  therein,  yonder,  aloof,  forth, 

hence,         thither,  wherein,  far,  off,  up,  down,  forwards. 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  to  the  question  Where?  Whence  f  or  Whither  f 
and  hence  imply  position  or  direction. 

3.  Adverbs  of  Time. 
Now,  always,  after,  sometimes, 

when,         already,          lately,        seldom, 
then,  as,  early,         daily, 

ever,  while,  aprain,        forever, 

never,         before,  often,         to-day, 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  to  the  question  When'i  How  long  ?  How  often  f 
How  soon?  or  How  long  ago?  and  hence  they  denote  present  time,  future 
time,  relative  time,  duration,  or  repetition. 

Adverbs  of  Number.  —  Once,  twice,  thrice.    These  denote  time. 
Adverbs  of  Order.  —  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  etc.    These  denote  either 
place  or  time. 


to-moiTow, 

since, 

yesterday, 

till, 

immediately, 

yet, 

hitherto, 

just. 

hereafter. 

anon. 

ADVERBS.  177 

4.  Adverbs  of  Degree,  Extent,  or  Quantity. 

Much,  less,  so,  wholly,  even,  cliieflr, 

more,  least,  just,  ptiitly,  how,  nearly, 

nio>t,  very,  tiilly,  all,  liuwevcr,  well-nigh, 

mostly,  too,  full,  quite,  enough,  ever  so, 

little,  as,  generally,  scarcely,  nevertheless,  somewhat. 

Adverbs  of  this  class  answer  to  tho  qaestion.  In  what  degree?  To  what 
extent  ?  or  IIow  much  ? 

Adverbs  from  other  classes  can  be  frequently  used  as  adverbs  of  deforce. 

The  following  adverbs  of  the  foregoing  class  are  worthy  of  separate  notice. 

Adverbs  of  Addition,  Exclusion,  or  Emphasis.  —  Too,  only, 
merely,  but,  especially,  also,  besides,  else,  still,  likewise,  even,  not,  particu- 
larly, moreover,  withal,  eke. 

5,  Modal  Adverbs. 
These  show  how  the  statement  is  made  or  regarded. 

Of  Affirmation  or  Approval.  —  Yes,  yea,  ay,  verily,  surely,  cer- 
tainly, forsooth,  indeed,  truly,  really,  amen,  of  course,  to  be  sure. 

Of  Negation.  —  Not,  nay,  no,  nowise,  by  no  means. 

Of  Doubt.  —  Perhaps,  probably,  perchance,  may-be,  haply. 

Of  Cause  or  Means.  —  Why,  therefore,  wherefore,  hereby,  thereby, 
whereby,  wherewith,  whereof,  accordingly,  consequently,  hence,  tlience, 
whence,  etc.  Some  of  these  adverbs,  as  whereht/,  consist  of  a  pronominal 
adcerb  and  a  preposition,  and  may  therefore  be  called  adjunctive  adverbs. 

Of  Position.  —  There.     "  There  was  no  one  there." 

There,  as  used  in  such  sentences,  is  a  word  that  has  withdrawn  from  the  common 
vocabulary  of  significant  words,  and  hecome  simply  a  word  of  syntax  ;  having  been  ap- 
propriated by  L-inpuHpe  as  something  necessary  '■  to  run  the  machinery."  There,  thus 
used,  Bimply  serves  to  give  the  sentence  another  form,  b^  allowing  the  words  to  assume  a 
more  emphatic  arrangemeDt.  A  similar  remark  is  applicable  to  i7,  and  some  other  words. 

Exercises. 

Mention  six  ndverbs  of  manner;  —  six  of  place;  —  six  of  time; — six  of  de- 
gree;—five  different  modal  adverbs:  —  six  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Compare  late,  soon,  early,  much,  little,  well,  ill,  long,  for,  heroically. 

An  adverb,  and  why ;  of  what  kind,  and  xchat  it  modifies :  — 

Wisely,  now,  here,  very.  The  horse  runs  swiftly.  God  is 
everywhere.  Never  before  did  I  see  her  look  »  pale.  These 
things  have  always  been  so.  I  have  been  too  idle  heretofore ; 
but  henceforth  I  will  study  more  diligently.  Your  book  is 
more  beautiful.  He  was  lately  here.  The  hall  was  brilliantly 
illuminated,  and  densely  crowded  with  hearers. 

8*  L 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

538.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  a  following  noun  or  pronaun  and  some  other 
word. 

"  The  rabbit  in  the  hollow  tree  was  caught."  What  In  what  ? 
The  substantive  after  the  preposition  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

539.  Two  prepositions  are  sometimes  combined,  and 
used  as  one  ;  and  some  phrases  are  generally  used  as  prep- 
ositions. 

Ex.  —  Upon,  according  to,  as  to,  as  for. 

"  The  river  {[owed  from  under  the  palaces." 
Such  phrases  are  sometimes  called  complex  or  compound  prepositions. 

540.  An  Adjunct,  or  Prepositmial  Phrase^  is  a  prep- 
osition with  its  object,  or  with  the  words  required  after 
it  to  complete  the  sense. 

Ex.  —  "  The  wind  swept  in  waves  \  over  the  hrisding  barlcT/.'" 

An  adjunct  generally  shows  where,  when,  how,  how  long,  of  what 

kind,  by  whom,  by  what  means,  etc. 

(  under  the  Muff, 
Ex.  —  "A  fox  I  of  the  largest  size  \  was  caught  \  before  sunrise, 

[by  our  doffs.''^ 

541*  Some  adjuncts  may  be  inverted  or  parted,  espe- 
cially in  poetry. 

Ex.  —  "  Whom  was  it  given  to  f"  better,  "  To  whom  was  it  gi^-^n  ?  " 

"  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among."  —  Byron. 
That  is,  *'  From  peak  to  peak,  among  the  rattling  crags.''* 

542.  An  adjunct  may  relate  to,  — 

1.  A  substantive. 

Ex.  —  "  The  caves  \  of  Kentuchj  are  wonderful."    What  caves  ? 

2.  A  verb. 

Ex.  — "  The  river  rises  [  in  the  mountains."    Kises  where  ? 
3.-  An  adjective. 

Ex.  —  *'  The  river  is  clear  \  in  the  mountains.'*    Clear  where  ? 
4.  An  adverb. 
Ex.  —  "  You  have  acted  inconsistently  \  with  your  professions.** 


PREPOSITIONS.  179 

But  when  the  adverb  relates  to  the  adjunct,  then  the  adjunct  relates  to 
BOir.e  other  word;  as,  "  You  were  tar  before  us."  Before  us  relates  to  «7ere, 
aiidyhr  modifies  be  fort  us. 

Sometimes  an  aujunct  relates  to  a  phrase;  as,  "You  study  grammar  for 
your  improvement  iu  luuguage."  Here  for  relates  rather  to  study  yrainnmr 
than  to  study  oniy. 

543.  The  substantive  which  follows  the  preposition,  or 
is  governed  by  it,  may  be,  — 

1.  A  noun. 

Ex.  —  "  The  fox  ran  under. the  Uvff."    Under  what  ? 

2.  A  pronoun. 

Ex.  —  "  Come  to  me."    To  whom? 

3.  An  infinitive. 

Ex.  —  "  None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee."    Except  what  ? 

4.  A  participial  noun. 

Ex.  —  "  In  the  selling  of  their  estate,  a  mistake  was  made." 

5.  A  participle  that  has  case,  yet  retains  the  syntax  of 
the  verb. 

Ex.  —  "  By  carefully  removing  the  difficulties,  you  may  succeed." 

6.  A  clause, 

Ex.  —  "  This  will  depend  ON"  %Dho  the  commissioners  are.*' 

"Reason  and  justice  have  been  jurymen  ever  since  J  le- 
fore  Noah  was  a  sailor."  —  Shakespeare. 

544.  Two  or  more  prepositions  may  govern  the  same 
substantive. 

Ex.  —  " He  walked  up  and  doum  the  hill" 

545.  Two  or  more  substantives  may  be  governed  by 
the  same  preposition. 

Ex.  —  "A  battle  between  Mexicans  and  Indians,'* 

"  He  left  his  estate  to  his  wife,  children,  and  friends." 
Two  or  more  adjuncts  may  be  combined.    "  The  gold  i7i  apiece  of  quartz.^* 
The  modified  term,  which  commonly  precedes  the  adjunct,  is  called 
the  antecedent  term ;  and  the  governed  substantive  the  subsequent  term. 

546.  Frequently,  the  adjunct  precedes  the  word  to 
which  it  relates,  or  is  considerably  removed  from  it. 

**  On  the  next  day,  while  we  retreated,  the  enemy  approached." 


180  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

547.  An  adjunct  is  generally  equivalent  to  an  adverb 
or  an  adjective. 

Ex.  —  "  He  acted  with  wisdom  "  ==  IIo  acted  wisely, 
"  A  man  of  tcisdom  "  =  A  wise  man. 
*'  He  is  in  misery  "  =  He  is  miserable. 

Adjuncts  can  supply  the  place  of  the  possessive  case;  as,  "^6sff?om's beauty  " 
r=  Ihe  beauty  of  Absalom.  (See  p.  97.)  Sometiraes  an  adjunct  is  equivalent 
to  a  participle  or  a  verb;  a?,  "  He  is  in  trouble'"  =  He  is' troubled.  Finally, 
adjuncts  supply  the  deficiency  of  all  other  descriptive  expressions,  and  often 
relieve  them. 

548.  A  preposition  that  lias  no  word  to  govern,  be- 
comes an  adverb ;  sometimes,  a  noun  or  an  adjective. 

Ex.  —  "  The  eagle  flew  up,  then  round,  then  down  again.* 

"It  fell  from  above."    "It  came /row  tcithin." 
Above  is  a  noun,  or  from  above  can  be  parsed  as  an  adverbial  phrase. 
•'  The  forest  overlooked  the  shaded  plain  heloio."  —  Dryden. 

Befow  is  equivalent  to  the  adjective  adjunct  behw  it,  or  the  adjective  clause  tshich 
teas  below ;  and  it  is  therefor^;  a  dfjinitiie  adjective.  Below  is  a  preposition  or  an  ad- 
verb i:i  repard  to  the  omitted  words;  and  it  becomes  an  adjective  ouly  aa  huviug  assumed 
the  oGice  of  an  adjective  phrase  or  clause,  which  it  represents. 

540t  Sometimes  the  object  is  merely  omitted. 

"  The  man  you  spoke  of;  i.  e.,  of  whom  you  spoke." 
"I  have  nothing  to  tic  it  with;  i.  e ,  with  which  to  tie  it." 

550.  The  antecedent  term  is  sometimes  omitted,  or 
there  is  none. 

"  Industrious  all,  from  the  youngest  to  the  oldest"  j  recTcontng  from,  etc. 

"  Sold  at  the  rate  of  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar;"  i.  e.,  of  prices  varying 
from,  etc.  It  seems  to  us  that  it  would  not  be  improper  to  parse  the  whole 
phrase  after  o/*as  a  noun. 

"  As  to  riches,  they  are  not  worth  so  much  care." 

5j1.  The  preposition  itself  is  sometimes  omitted;  espe- 
cially to,  unto,  or  for,  after  like,  unlike,  near,  nigh,  worth, 
opposite,  and  verbs  of  giving  or  imparting. 

Ex.  —  **  The  house  was  near  [/o]  the  river,  nearer  [to]  the  river,  next  to 
curs."  "  The  Fon  is  like  \to  or  unto\  his  father."  "  Opposite  ['o]  the  mar- 
ket." "  Lend  him  your  knife"  =  Lend  your  knife  to  him.  '-Give  [to]  us 
our  daily  bread."     "  Who  departed  [from']  this  life,"  etc. 

The  adjective  or  adverb  has  essentially  absorbed  the  preposition ;  and  it  might 
therefore  be  called  Sl  prepositional  adjec;tive  or  adverb,  governing  the  object. 


PREPOSITIONS.  181 

552.  Prepositions  are  much  used  as  parts  of  compound 
words ;  and  when  thus  used,  they  are  generally  adverbial. 
Ex. —  Overshoot,  undei'mme,  uphold,  income,  cr/J!erthought. 

LIST    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 

Learn  the  List,  and  tell  between  what  words  each  preposition  shows  the  relation. 
A.     "  Wc  went  a  lisliing."     "  This  set  people  a  thinking."  —  Sivi/l. 
Aboard.    "  To  go  or  be  aboard  a  ship." 
About*    "  To  run  about  the  house."     "  To  dine  al)out  noon." 
Above.    "  The  stars  above  us."     "  To  be  above  meanness." 
Across.    "  A  tree  lying  across  the  road." 
After.    "  To  start  after  dinner." 
Against.     "  We  rowed  against  the  stream." 
Alonj.    "  The  cloud  is  gilded  along  the  border." 
Amid,  amidst.    "  The  rogues  escaped  amidst  the  confusion." 
Among,  amongst.     "  Fiowcrs  perish  among  weeds." 
Around,  round.    "  The   ring  around  \m  finger."     "  To  sail  round  the 
At.    "  She  lives  at  home."     "  The  sun  sets  at  six  o'clock."  [world." 

Athwart.     "  Why  advance  thy  miscreated  fi-ont  athwart  my  way  1 " 
Before.     "  The  tree  before  the  house."     "  To  rise  before  day." 
Behind.     "  The  squirrel  hid  behind  the  tree." 
Below.     "The  James  River  is  very  crooked  below  Hichmond.'* 
Beneath.    "  The  chasm  Itenmth  us."     "  lie  is  beneath  contempt." 
Beside^  besides.    "  A  large  sycamore  grew  beside  the  river." 
Between.     "  The  river  (lows  between  two  hills." 
Betwixt.     "  He  was  cruihcd  to  deatli  betwixt  two  cars.** 
Beyond.    "  Tlie  life  beyond  the  grave  is  a  mystery."  m 

But.    "  Whence  all  but  him  liad  fled."  -'' 

By.    "  A  lily  by  a  brook."    "  Demolished  by  soldiers." 
Concerning.    "  lie  spoke  concerning  virtue." 
Down.    "  The  boat  went  down  tlie  river." 
During.    **  He  remained  abroad  daring  the  war.'* 
Ere.    "  Ho  came  ere  noon." 

Except,  excepting.    "  All  except  him  were  set  free." 
For.    "  To  sell /or  money."     "  A  collection />/•  the  poor. 
From.    "A  branch /;w«  the  tree."     "To  judge //owi  the  description.*' 
In.     "  A  pond  in  a  meadow."     "  To  play  in  the  afternoon." 
Into.     "  To  step  into  a  carriage,  and  then  ride  in  it." 
Notwithstanding.    "  He  succeeded,  notwithstanding  the  opposition." 
0£    **  The  house  ofa,  friend."    "  To  die  of  a,  disease." 


182  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Off.    "Juan  Fernandez  lies  offihQ  coast  of  Chili." 

On.    "  The  picture  on  the  wall."    "  To  start  on  Tuesday." 

Over.     "  Tiie  bridge  over  the  river."     "  To  ruie  octr  a  nation/* 

Past.     "  They  drove  past  the  house." 

Respecting.     " Iiespe<tirt(/  his  conduct,  there  is  but  one  opinion." 

Save.     **  All  save  him  remained." 

Since.     "  He  has  not  been  here  since  last  Christmas." 

Till,  until.     ''  He  will  remain  here  till  next  Christmas.'* 

To,  unto.     "  To  go  to  the  river."     "Verily,  I  say  unto  you." 

Toward,  towards.     **  lie  came  towards  mc." 

Through.     "  To  travel  through  woods  and  swamps." 

Throughout.     *  There  was  commotion  throughout  the  whole  land." 

Under.     "  The  earth  under  our  feet."     "  To  be  under  age." 

ITudemeath.    "Underneath  this  sable  hearse  lies  the  subject  of  all  verse." 

Up.    "He  climbed  tip  the  tree." 

Upon.    "  The  people  stood  m/>o«  the  house-tops." 

With.     "  Girls  with  sparkling  eyes."     "  Enameled  with  flowers." 

Within.    "  The  war  will  end  within  the  next  six  months." 

Without.    "A  purse  without  money."     "  To  live  Without  company." 

According  to.    **  It  was  done  according  to  law." 

Contrary  to.     "  He  has  acted  contranj  to  orders." 

As  to.     "  As  to  your  case,  nothing  was  said" 

From  beyond.   "  They  camc//-o»i  begond  Jordan." 

From  out.    ^'From  out  thy  slime  the  monsters  of  the  deep  are  made." 

In  stead  of*    "  This  in  stead  o/that."   Better,  in  stead  of,  as  "  in  place  of,'* 

*'  in  lieu  of,"  "  in  my  stead,"  "  but  this  in  stead."     Stead  is  a  noun. 
Out  ofi    "  Drawn  out  of  a  well."    "  A  piano  out  of  tnne." 

To  the  foregoing  prepositions  may  be  added  the  following,  which  arc 
less  common :  Abaft,  adown,  afore,  aloft,  alongside,  aloof,  aneath,  aslant, 
atween,  atwixt,  bating,  despite,  despite  of  inside,  maugre,  minus,  outside, 
pending,  per,  plus,  sans,  saving,  than,  thorough,  touching,  versus,  via,  icithal, 
withinside ;  aboard  of,  as  for,  along  with,  from  among,  from  before,  from  be- 
twixt, from  off,  from  under,  off  of,  over  against,  round  about,  but  for. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

55^*  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
plirases,  or  propositions. 

Ex.  —  "  The  mossy  fountains  and  the  sylvan  shades."  —  Pope. 
"  John  and  James  are  happy,  because  they  are  good." 


CONJUNCTIONS.  183 

554.  Conjunctions  not  only  connect  parts  of  a  sentence, 
but  they  also  show  how  the  connected  parts  are  related 
or  regarded. 

"  Dear,  because  worthless."    "  Read  and  write  " ;  "  Read  or  write." 

555.  Two  conjunctions  are  sometimes  combined,  and 
used  as  one  ;  and  sometimes  a  common  phrase  is  used  as 
a  conjunction. 

"And  yet  I  would  not  get  riches  thus,  even  ifl  were  a  beggar." 

"  John,  as  well  as  Arthur,  must  be  punished,  inasmuch  as  they  have 

both  been  disobedient." 

Such  phrases  are  sometimes  called  complex  or  compound  conjunctions. 

Sometimes  an  adverb  is  added  to  a  conjunction  simply  to  strengthen  or  vary  tlie  con- 
necting sense,  and  the  two  words  may  then  be  called  a  conjunctive  phrase,  or  simply  a 
ponjuiiction ;  but  such  adverbs  as  even,  too.  and  also,  should  probably  rather  be  re- 
ferred to  our  Note  "Vll,  uuder  the  Rules  of  Syutax. 

556.  A  Corresponding  Conjunction,  or  Correlative 
Connective^  is  one  of  a  separated  pair  that  connect  the 
same  parts. 

Ex.  —  "  Neither  flattery  nor  threats  could  prevail." 

Neither  Is  a  correspond  in  jr  conjunction  answering  or  relating  to  nor,  and  hoping  it  to 
connect  the  worAs^ftafteri/  and  threats.  The  two  connectives  give  greater  completeness  to 
the  connection,  by  c*t/o/ciiH</ the  terms;  while  one  conntctive  would  ;<p|>ear  as  a  mere 
tie.  It  is  sometimes  probably  best  to  say  that  the  subordinate  connective  is  an  auxil- 
iary connective  that  liel|)8  the  oth^-r  to  unite  two  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  by  giving 
emphasis  or  greater  completeness  to  the  connection. 

Sometimes  the  connectives,  as  so  and  as,  or  rather  and  than,  stand  next  to  each  other ; 
but  they  still  belong  to  different  clauses  or  phrases. 

557.  And^  or,  and  nor,  are  the  cliief  conjunctions ;  and 
they  are  mostly  used  for  connecting  words  or  phrases. 

Ex.  —  "  Bees  and  blossoms."  "  Bees  or  blossoms."  "  Neither  bees 
nor  blossoms." 

558.  But,  if,  and  that,  are  the  next  most  important 
conjunctions;  and  they  are  mostly  used  for  connecting 
clauses. 

Ex.  —  "  She  tries  a  thousand  arts,  hut  none  succeed."  —  Young. 

In  language,  the  simple  successioQ  of  parts  implies  connection. 
Hence, — 


184  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

550.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  conjunctions  are  some- 
times omitted. 

"'Twas  certain  [tJiat^  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too.** 

"  Had  I  been  at  home,  you  should  have  staid ;  "  i.  e.,  7/* I,  etc. 

"  The  way  was  long,  \_and]  the  wind  was  cold." 

■When  and,  or,  or  nor,  is  used  before  the  last  term  of  a  series,  it  prohably  shows  simply 
that  the  end  is  reached  ;  and  it  is  therefore  hardly  proper  to  consider  it  as  beinjj  uuder- 
stood  before  each  preceding  term. 

56D.  A  conjunction  is  sometimes  used  where  it  is  not 
absolutely  needed. 

1.  At  the  beginninoj  of  a  sentence,  to  make  its  intro- 
duction  less  abrupt. 

^  And  tell  me,  I  charge  you,  ye  clan  of  my  spouse, 
Why  fold  ye  your  mantles,  why  cloud  ye  your  brows  ?  " 

2.  In  the  body  of  a  sentence,  when  the  speaker  means 
to  dwell  on  particulars,  in  order  that  the  hearer  may  duly 
appreciate  what  he  says. 

Ex.  —  "  Italy  teems  with  recollections  of  every  kind ;  for  courage, 
and  wisdom,  and  power,  and  arts,  and  science,  and  beauty,  and 
music,  and  desolation,  have  all  made  It  their  dwelling-place." 

531.  When  a  conjunction  connects  words  o,r  phrases, 
they  are  nearly  always  in  the  same  construction. 

Ex.  —  "Mary,  Jane,  and  Alice,   |   icent  into  the  garden,   and 

brought  some  large,  ripe,  and  j'uici/  peaches." 

Here  the  connected  nouns  are  nominatives  to  the  same  verbs  ,  the  connected  verbs  or 
predicates  have  the  same  subject ;  and  the  couaectcd  adjectives  qualify  the  same  noun. 

582.  Most  conjunctions  are  emigrants  from  other  parts 
of  speech. 

Ex. — Both,  either,  that,  acf/. ;  then,  yet,  as,  adv.;  except,  pro- 
vided, if  (probably  from  give),  verbs. 

LIST    OF    CONJUNCTIONS. 

Learn  the  List,  and  show  what  terms  are  connected  by  each  conjunction. 
And  ;  copulative ;  co-ordinate.    *•  The  winds  and  the  waves  arc  absent  there." 
As;  causal ;  snbordinafe.     "As  you  request  it,  I  will  fro." 
As  ;  comparative ;  siilmrdinote,  sonn^times  co-ordinate.  "You  did  as  well  as  I." 
Jx,  implying  comparison,  ia  generally  rather  a  conjuuctive  adverb  than  a  pure  coo^ 
juncUon. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  185 

As  well  as ;  copulative;  co-ordinate.    **  He,  as  well  as  I,  was  deceived." 
Because  ;  causal ;  subordinate.   "  Success  is  difficult,  Ltcause  many  strive.'* 
But;  adccrsatice  ;  co-ordinate.     "  I  go,  6ui  I  return."  [politics/* 

Except;   restrictive;  subordinate.     "He  is  sane,  frrept  when  lie  talks  of 
Except;  conditional;  subordinate.    "Except  a  man  be  born  a^ain,"  etc. 
For;  causal;  subordinate,  sometimes  co-ordinate.     "  llise,ybr  it  is  day.'* 
Furthermore;  copulative ;  co-ordinate.    It  sometimes  begins  a  paragraph. 
If;  conditional;  subordinate,     "^'thc  advice  is  good,  take  it.'* 
liCst;  cautionary  or  causal ;  subordinate.     "  Touch  it  not,  lest  ye  die.'* 
Notwithstanding  5  adversative  and  co-ordinate,  or  concessive  and  subordinate. 

Notwithstanding,  when  used  in  the  sense  of  "  still,  however"  is  co-ordinate ; 
when  used  in  the  sense  of  "  even  ij\"  subordinate. 

Moreover ;  copulative;  co-ordinate.    It  sometimes  begins  a  paragraph. 
Nor  ;  disjunctive  ;  co-ordinate.     "  He  said  nothing  more,  nor  did  I." 
Or;  disjunctive ;  co-ordinate.     "Wc  must  educate,  or  we  must  perish.'* 
Provided  ;  conditional ;  subordinate.     "1  will  go,  provided  you  go." 
Since  ;  causal ;  subordinate.     "  Since  you  have  come,  I  will  go." 
Still  ;  adversative;  coordinate.     "He  has  often  failed,  still  he  strives.'* 
Than;  comparative;  subordinate.     "Performance  is  better  than  promising.** 
That ;  final;  subordinate.    "  He  studies,  that  he  may,"  etc.   For  what  end? 
That ;  demonstrative ;  subordinate.      Thai,  in  this  sense,  is  a  sort  of  pro- 
noun, with  which  the  rest  of  the  clause  is  put  in  apposition ;  or  it 
forms  a  kind  of  handle  to  the  clause,  by  pointing  out  a  group  of  words 
that  must  be  referred  as  a  whole  to  something  else.     "  That  \  the  war 
is  a  calamiti/,  is  admitted."  "  It  is  admitted  that\  the  war  is  a  calamiii/.** 
"  We  all  know  i  hat  \  the  tvar  is  a  calamitij." 
Then ;  illative ;  co-ordinate.     "  The  cotton  is  yours  ?  then  defend  it." 
Though,  althousrh,  sometimes  what  thoujrh ;  concessive,  subordinate, 

"  Tliough  he  owns  but  little,  he  owes  nothing." 
Unless;  conditional;  subordinate.     "Unless  you  study,  you  will  not  learn.'* 
Unless  ;  adversative  ;  co-ordinate,     "  Remain,  unless  you  must  go." 
Whether ;  indeterminate;  subordinate.     "  I  will  see  whether  he  has  come.** 
Whether,  and  not  if,  should  begin  an  indeterminate  clause  nsed  as  a  noun. 
W.    Nobody  knows  if  the  war  will  end  soon.    I  will  see  if  he  has  come. 
Whereas;  causal ;  subordinate.     "Whereas  it  doth  appear,"  etc. 
Whereas ;  adversative ;  co-ordinate.     "  Reason  errs ;  whereas  instinct,"  etc. 
Yet ;  adversative ;  coordinate.     "All  dread  death,  yet  few  are  pious." 
The  principal  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are  and,  or,  nor,  and  but. 
The  principal  subordinate  conjunctions  arc  that,  than,  as,  if,  and  because. 

The  left  or  first  column  of  meanings  will  serve  for  parS' 
ing ;  and  the  right  or  second,  for  analysis.    Co-ordinate 


186  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

CONJUNCTIONS  join  the  parts  of  compound  phrases  or  sen- 
tences ;  SUBORDINATE,  of  COMPLEX. 

There  arc  some  exceptions  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  List ;  but  these 
we  refer  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher,  for  it  would  be  too  tedious  to 
mention  them. 

Correlative  Conjunctions  or  Connectives. 

Both  —  and.    "  It  is  both  mine  and  yours." 

Either  —  or.    "  It  is  either  mine  or  yours." 

Neither  —  nor.     "  It  is  neither  mine  nor  yours." 

"Whether  —  or.    "  I  know  not  whether  it  is  mine  or  yours." 

Though,  although  —  yet,  nevertheless.    "  Though  deep,  yet  clear." 

If —  then.     "  If  yon  have  no  confidence,  then  do  not  venture." 

As  —  as  5  equality.     "  Time  is  as  precious  as  gold." 

As  —  so  ;  equality.     "As  the  one  dies,  so  dies  the  other." 

So  —  as ;  consequence.     "  It  is  so  plain  as  to  require  no  explanation.** 

So  —  that;  consequence.     *'  The  road  was  so  muddy  that  we  returned." 

Not  only  —  but  also.     "  He  is  not  only  lx)hl,  hut  he  is  also  cautious." 

Or  —  or  J  sometimes  used  by  poets  in  stead  of  either  —  or. 

Nor  —  nor ;  sometimes  used  by  poets  in  stead  of  neither  —  nor. 

To  these  correlative  connectives  mny  be  added  stick  and  as,  same  and  a,«,  such  and 
that,  not  and  nor,  other  and  than,  rather  and  than,  else  and  than,  the  comparative 
degree  followed  by  than,  the  and  the  followed  each  by  the  comparative  degree,  and  a 
few  similar  expressions.  Correlative  connectives  are  sometimes  not  conjunctions.  The 
antecedent  correlative  is  frequently  an  adverb  or  an  adjective.  Such  a  correlative  con- 
nective should  be  first  parsed  as  the  part  of  speech  to  which  it  IxiloDgs  ;  and  then  its 
conjunctive  character  may  be  stated,  with  the  Rule  for  conjunctions. 

To  the  conjunctions  already  given  may  be  added  as  if,  even  if,  even 
though,  except  that,  provided  that,  save,  saving  that,  seeing  that,  inasmuch  as, 
forasmuch  as,  so  that,  in  order  that,  so  as,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  moment  that,  etc.  Some  of  these  may  be  more  appropriately  called 
conjunctive  phrases. 

Again,  also,  however,  now,  nay,  even,  further,  besides,  therefore,  wherefore, 
namely,  nevertheless,  otherwise,  likewise,  so,  thus,  else,  accordingly,  consequently, 
and  a  few  other  such  words,  though  originally  adverbs,  may  be  considered 
conjunctions  when  they  stand  near  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or  sentence, 
and  serve  to  introduce  it.  Most  such  words  have  acquired  their  conjunc- 
tive sense  by  ellipsis. 

It  is  fsomeMmes  difficult  to  determine  whethftr  a  given  word  should  be  con- 
sidered an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  a  conjunction.  The  chief  character- 
istic of  adverbs  is.  to  modify;^  of  conjunctions,  to  connect;  and  of  preposi- 
tions, to  govern  substantives  in  the  objective  case.  It  is  generally  not  so 
much  a  matter  of  importance  to  know  precisely  to  what  class  a  given  word 
should  be  referred,  as  to  understand  clearly  the  meaning  and  force  of  th» 
word  in  the  sentence. 


INTERJECTIONS.  187 

INTERJECTIONS. 

5S3.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  an 
emotion,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with  any- 
other  word. 

Ex.  — '"  O,  stay  ! '  the  maiden  said,  '  and  rest.' "  —  Longfellow, 
Omit  0,  and  the  sentence  will  still  make  good  sense  without  it. 

534.  Words  from  almost  every  other  part  of  speech, 
and  sometimes  entire  phrases,  when  abruptly  uttered  to 
express  emotion,  may  become  interjections. 

Ex.  —  Strange  !  behold  !  what !  why  !  indeed  !  mercy  I 
"  Why,  there,  there,  there  !  " 
"  Fire  and  brimstone  !  what  have  you  been  doing  ?  ** 

But  when  it  is  not  tlic  chief  purpose  of  such  a  word  to  express  emo- 
tion, and  when  the  omitted  words  are  obvious,  the  word  should  be 
parsed  as  usual ;  as,  '^Palience,  good  lady  !  comfort,  gentle  Constance  1 " 
=  Have  patience^  good  lady  1  receive  comfort,  gentle  Constance. 

565.  Words  used  in  speaking  to  the  inferior  animals, 
and  imitative  words  or  syllables  that  are  uttered  with, 
emotion,  are  generally  interjections. 

Ex.  —  Ilaw  !  gee  !  whoh  !  scat !  whist !  'st,  'st ! 

"The  words  arc  fine;  but  as  to  the  sense  —  b-a-hl" 
"  Up  comes  a  man  on  a  sudden,  slap  !  dash  !  ** 
*'  Be  sure  that  you  blow  out  the  candle, — 
Rifol  de  rol  tol  de  rol  lot"  —  Horace  Smith. 

566.  A  substantive  after  an  interjection  is  independent, 
or  else  its  case  depends  on  some  word  understood. 

Ex.  —  "  O  thou  !  "  "  Ah  me  !  "  =«  Ah !  pity  me ;  or,  Ah  1  what  has 
happened  to  me  !  or.  Ah  !  wo  is  to  me  !  or.  Ah  !  it  grieves  me. 
"  O,  happy  we  / "  r=s  O,  happy  are  we  !    Or  else  apply  Rule  IL 

LIST    OF    INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Of  Earnestness  in  Address.  —  0  ! 

2.  Of  Surprise,  Wonder,  or  Horror.  —  ITah  1  ha!  w^hat!  h'm  I 
heigh  I  indeed  !  hey-day  !  la !  whew  1  zounds !  ch !  ah  !  oh  1  hoity-toity  1 


188 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


3.  Of  Sorrow  or  Pity.  —  Oh  !  alas  !  ah  !  alack !  welladay  ! 

4.  Of  Joy,  Exultation,  or  Approbation.  —  Aha !    ah  !    oh  !    hey  I 

eh  !  eigh  !  htizzah  !  liurrah  !  good  !  bravo  ! 

5.  Of  Contempt  or  Aversion.  —  Pshaw  !   pish  !   tut !   tush  !    poh ! 
fie!    bah!  liuinpn!  faugh!  wiiew  !  o(f!  begone!  avauni! 

6.  Of  Attention  or  Calling.  —  Ho !   lo  !  behold  !  look  !  see  !   hark  ! 
la !  heigh-ho !  soho  !  hollo  !  halloo !  hoy  !  whoh  !  'st ! 

7.  Of  Silence.  —  Hush !  hist !  whist!  'st !  aw!  mum! 

8.  Of  Interrogating.  —  Eh  1   hem,  or  h'm  ?     (The  opposite  of  the 
preceding  class.) 

9.  Of  Detection.  —  Aha !  oho !  ay-ay ! 

10.  Of  Laughter.  —  Ha,  ha,  ha  !  he,  he,  he ! 

11.  Of  Saluting  or  Farting.  —  Welcome  !    hail !    all-hail !    adieu  I 
good-by  !  and  perhaps  good-day  !  good-morning  !  etc. 

Can  you,  mention  two  interjections  of  grief  f  —  two  ofjoijfeic. 


QUESTIONS   FOE  EEVIEW. 


1.  "What  is  a  Verb?       •       •       •    U 

2.  Give  the  Classification  of  Verba. 

3.  What  id  a  regular  verb  ?  . 

4.  What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

6.  Which  are  the  prinripal  parts  of  a 
verb?  and  why  are  they  called 
such?        

6.  What  is  a  rerJun/Iant  verb  ? 

7.  What  is  a  defect  ice  verb?   .        . 

8.  What  is  fi  finite  verb  ?      .        .        . 

9.  Whitt  parts  of  the  verb  are  not 

finite? 

10.  What  is  a  transitive  vrb  ? 

11.  WhitSsmx  intransitive  verb?    . 

12.  What  is  a  neuter  verb  ?    . 

13.  When  may  a  transitive  verb  become 

intransitive?     .... 

14.  When  may  an  intransitive  verb  be- 

come transitive  ?    ,        .        .        . 

15.  What  is  a  principal  vrrb  ?  .         , 

16.  Vf\i-At\&  Bin  aux Hi nry  verb?     . 

17.  What  properties  have  verbs  ?     , 

18.  What  is  Voice>  >n  grammar? 

19.  IIow  many  voices  are  there,  and 
•what  are  they  called? 

20.  When-  is  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  ' 

21.  When  is  a  verb  in  the  passive  voire  ? 

22.  To  what  verbs  does  voice  belong  ?  . 

23.  -What  is  said  of  such  verbs  as  are 

eome,  ts  gnnf.? 

24.  IIo'.v  is  a  verb  in  the  active  voice 

changed  into  the  passive  ?     . 

25.  What  is  Mood  1 

26.  IIow  many  moods  are  there,  and 

what  are  they  called  ?    . 

27.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  indicative 

tnooUG:ipi&sal 


331  28. 

:29. 

305  3'J. 

3^^,31. 

32. 

^'^|35. 
378  |i 

384  Jl- 


47. 

395  48. 
398 1, Q 
397 


406  56. 

407  57. 


A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood?  .  410 
A  verb  in  the;^^ore«i/a/ »//oof/.'  .  417 
A  verb  in  the  iiiiptrutive  niood?    .  4'iO 

W^hatisTe^se?  ...  424 
How  many  tenses  are  there,  and 

what  are  they  called  ?  .  .  .  425 
What  is  said  of  the  present  indica- 

live? 420 

Of  the  present  subjunctive?  .  .427 
Of  the  present  potential  ?  .  .  423 
Oi' the  present  imperative?  .  .  425) 
Of  the  present-perl ect  indicative  ?  480 
Of  the  present-perfect  potential  ?  .  432 
Oithit  past  indicative?  .  .  433 
Of  the  past  subjunctive?  .  .431 
Of  the  past  potential  ?  .  .  435 
Of  the  past-perfect  indicative  ?  .  433 
Of  the  past-perfect  subjunctive  and 

potential?  ....  437 
Of  the  future  tense  ?  .  .  .  438 
Of  t\i&  future-perfect  tense  ?  .  439 
What  is  said  of  the  tenses  of  the 

subjunctive  mood  ?  .  .  .  440 
Of  the  tenses  of  the  pot«nt5.al  ?  .  441 
Of  when,  till,  as  soon  as,  etc.?        .  442 

What  are  the  FoHMS  o/"«  Tense?  443 
IIow   many  forms  are  there,  and 

what  are  thev  called?  .  .  444 
What    is    said    of    the    common 

form  ?  445 

Of  the  emphatic  form  ?  .  .  446 
Of  the  passive  form  ?  .  ,  ,  447 
Of  t\m prt'^rfssive  form?  .  .  448 
Of  the  ancient  form?  .  .  .449 
IIow  is  a  proposition  made  inter- 

ro'jcative  ?  ....        4.'>'> 

IIow  ii  it  made  negative?       .        .  451 


QUESTIONS. 


189 


"tVhat  are  the  Person  and  ITuaber 

of  u  verb '!  .         .         .    '     . 

Wliut  ending  to  the  verb  do2s  thou 
f^eueraliy  require? 

Hr,  sh',  or  It,  iu  tiie  present  indic- 
ative ?  .... 

WMjeii  a  subject  or  antecedent  con- 
sists of  words  tiiat  differ  iu  person, 
how  do  >ou  defVruiiue  tUe  perxnn 
of  tlie  verl>  or  pronoun  ?      .    4yS, 

Wijat  kinds  of  s.ibjects  or  ante<:e- 
deiits  are  s»n;^MZ«r  in  construction  ? 

Wli'it  kinds  of  suljects  or  antece- 
dents are  plural  iu  construction? 

Wnat  teruiB  do  not  affect  tae  form 
of  the  verb  or  pronoun  ? 

Wltat  is  au  hnptrsonul  verb  1 

What  do  the  Auxiliary  Verts  ex- 
press ? 

AVhich  are  the  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

In  what  instances  is  it  proper  to 
use  shall  and  f.hindil  ? 

Iu  what  instan<es  is  it  proper  to 
use  will  and  would? 

In  what  other  wa>sthan  that  of  ex- 
pressing grammatical  properties, 
are  auxiliary  verbs  useful  ?    . 

When  are  bc^  do,  and  huce  priuci- 
pal  verbs?        .... 

What  is  an  InflnH' V3  ? 

How  many  infinitives  are  there, 
and  what  are  they  called  ?     . 

What  is  said  of  the  present  injini- 
tive? 

Ilow  is  it  formed  ?       .        .        . 

What  is  said  of  the  perfect  injin- 
ittce? 

How  is  it  formed  ?       .        .        . 

Wiion  is  to,  the  sign  of  the  infin- 
itive, omitted?     .        .        .    4S1, 

What  is  a  PartiC'T)''e  1      • 

Ilow  many  partiiiple*  are  there, 
and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  present  parti- 
ciple.?      

Ilow  is  the  simple  present  parti- 
ciple made  ?      .        .        .        . 

What  is  said  of  it  in  regard  to 
voice? 


I  84. 
452  i 

!  85. 
455' 

i  86. 

456  87. 

i  88. 


459    90. 
400    91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 


4:1 


95. 


109. 
110. 

111. 
112. 
113. 


What  is  said  of  the  perfect  parti- 

>>r>l,? 489 

How  is  the  simple  perfect  parti- 

eiple  made?  .  .  .  .490 
AViieu  is  it  iu  t'  e  active,  voice  ?  4i)2 
When  is  it  iu  the  passive  voice?  .  4^3 
^Vilat  is  a  rompduiid  puniciple  ?  495 
For  what  purpo.-e  is  the  auxiliary 

participle  bi-m^  used  '.  .        .  496 

For  what  purpose  is  the  auxiliary 

pat  ticiple /<'ir'/)^  used .'  .         497 

For  what  purpose  is  the  auxiliary 

participle  hnnn^  bem  u-ed  ?  .  498 
IIovv  many  and  what  infinitives  in 

botii  ?(»ices  ? 
How  many  and  what  participles  in 

both  voices  ? 
Mentiin  the  chief  particulars   in 

which  participles  and  infinitives 

agree  ?  ....    P.  153 

Mention  the  chief  particulars  in 

which  they  differ  ? 

What  is  Conjugation?       •      11515 

\Vhat  is  synopsis  ?     .         .        .        516 

What  is  an  A'^vcrh  1  .  .  .520 
Wbitt  is  a  conjitnrtive  adverh  '>  5'i4 

From    what    are     most    adverbs 

formed  ? 531 

When  should  the  adverb  he  used  ? 

and  when  the  adjectiv*;?  .  C33 
How  are  adverbs  compared  ?  .  537 

I  lit')  what  Classes  are  adverbs  di- 
vided ? 

What  is  a  Preposrtion  %  538 

What  is  an  adjunct  ?  .  .  .  540 
\Vhat  may   the  antecedent  term 

be? 541 

What  may   the  subsequent  term 

be?       .         .  ...  543 

Fkcpcat  the  list  of  prepositions. 

Whatis  aOonjnnctionT  .  553 
What  is  a  contsponding  conjunc- 

lion  ? 556 

Repeat  the  list  of  conjunctions. 

What  is  an  later jeotion  ?  .  663 
Mention  6ome  iuterjectious. 


Wrife  a  pentence  thnt  hns  a  proper  noun. 

"Wrife  a  sentence  tlitit  ha'j  a  cnmmon  noun. 

Wri'e  a  sentence  tlittt  has  a  collective  noun. 

AVrire  a  sentence  that  has  a  personal  pronoun. 

Write  a  sentence  that  lias  a  compound  personal  pronoun. 

Wtj'e  a  sent^^ence  in  which  the  relative  who  is  properlv  used. 

Wrire  a  sentence  in  which  the  reiaMve  which  is  properlv  iT^ed. 

Write  six  sentences  to  illustnte  different  constructions  of  the  relative  flint. 

Write  a  sentence  that  has  your  name  properly  u-ed  in  the  possessive  case. 

(The  teacher  should  extend  these  exercises  so  far  as  to  draw  out  all  the  im- 
portant points  of  the  book.) 


190  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

567.  Syntaij  comprises  relation  and  position. 

568.  Tlie  Relation  of  words  is  their  reference  to  one 
anotlier  according  to  the  sense. 

Kelation  frequently  implies  government  and  agreement. 

Government  is  the  power  which  one  Avonl  lias  over  another,  in  de- 
termininn;  its  case,  person,  number,  or  some  other  property. 

Agreement  is  the  correspondence  of  one  word  with  another,  in  case, 
person,  number,  or  some  other  property. 

569.  Position  refers  to  the  place  which  a  word  occu- 
pies in  reference  to  other  -words  of  the  sentence. 

570.  A  Rule,  in  gramm.ir,  is  rrenerally  a  brief  state- 
ment that  teaches  the  proper  form  or  use  of  words. 

UTILE  I.  — ITominativcs. 
A  Noun  or  Pronoun,  used  as  tlie  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  cas?. 

t/o/^n  studies,     /study.     27ic?/ study. 

ExPLANATiox.  — Since  .Tolm  floea  the  sturlyin?,  there  is  plainly  a  relation  between  Jo/in 
end  studies.  Obsi-'i-ve  also  tliat  we  can  tioc  use  objective  lunus,  and  say,  "  7l/c  study,'* 
*'  I'hem  study  ";  but  we  luu^t  use  tlia  uoiuiaa.ivefl  /  unJ  tkeij.    IiL.nce  the  Ilaie. 

W.    1  have  tasted  no  better  apples  than  them  arc. 
Were  you  and  him,  at  the  party  ? 
Whom,  would  you  suppose,  stands  head  in  our  class  ? 
lie  is  taller  than  ?ne,  but  I  am  as  tall  as  her. 

RULE  II.  — Nominatives. 
A  Noun  or  Pronoun,  used  independently  or  abso- 
lutely, must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 
Jl/or//,  your  lilies  are  in  bloom. 
The  rain  having  ceased,  we  departed. 

EXPLASATIOS.  —  Miiry  is  simply  adilr-ssfvl,  and  somotliiriT  els''  fssnid;  or  the  sentence 
voulil  make  sense  without  the  wurd  Marj,  which  is  thcrdoro  said  to  be  used  indeprn' 
dentlij  tif  the  rest  of  the  sen'.eiu.e. 

The  noun  rain  is  so  us-ul  with  a  participle  that  It  dws  not  relate  to  any  other  irordj 
and  it  ia  thcrol'ore  said  tu  bu  used  absolutely,  wilti  the  partioiple. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  191 


TC^OMTNATIVE    IkdEPENDEXT. 

By  direct  Address:  "  Auspicious  Hope!  in  thy  sweet  garden  prow 

Wreatlis  for  each  toil,  a  charm  for  ev«'ry  woe." 
By  Exclamation;  "  Siutlaml!  tlicrc  is  ma<.r?c  in  the  sound." 
By  Picoaasia  or  Specification :  "  lit  that  hath,  to  him  tshall  be  given." 

KoMi.vATivE  Absolute. 

Before  a  Participle:  "/'e«ce  bcinj;  established,  commerce  revived." 

"  The  steal  [I)eing]  at  hand,  why  lonj;er  tarry  ?  " 
/Lfter  a  Participle:  "  Such  is  ihe  folly  of  becoinin;^  a  pditkian." 
After  an  luduitive :  "  To  be  a  good  Christian  was  liis  highest  ambition.*' 
W.  Iliin  who  had  led  them  to  battle  being  killed,  they  retreated. 
Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble,  IJim  descending. 
There  is  no  doubt  of  its  being  him. 

RULE  III.  —  Possessives. 

A  Noun  or  Pronoun  that  limits  the  meaning  of  an- 
other by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  tlie  possessive 
case. 

John's  horse  is  in  our  pasture. 

ExPLANATTO!? — Since  John  owns  the  horse,  there  is  plainly  a  relation  between  John 
and  hump  ;  iiuil  it  is  also  evident  that  not  any  harse  is  meant,  hut  oaly  the  one  which  1)6" 
longs  to  John.    A  similar  remark  is  applicable  to  our  and  pasture. 

W,   Do  you  use  Webster  or  Worcester's  Dictionary  ? 

RULE  IV.  — Objectives. 
A  Noun  or  Pronoun,  used  as  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

I  shot  a  deer.     We  caught  them. 

ExPLATTATiox.  —  Since  T  shot  the  depr,  there  is  a  relation  between  my  shooting  and  the 
deer,  or  between  the  wonls  xhnt  jinil  deer.  In  the  st?c  inl  example,  there  i^  as  plainly  f» 
relation  lietween  cauyht  and  them;  and  notice  also  that  the  objective  form,  them,  atd 
not  the  nominative  form,  they,  will  make  jjood  sense  after  caufjht.    Hence  the  llule. 

The  foregoing  Rule  is  also  applicable  to  infinitives  and  participles. 

W.    She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 
Who  do  yon  mean  ?     Who  did  you  see  ? 
Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend ! 


192  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

RULE   v.  — Objectives. 
A  IToun  or  Pronoun,  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposi- 
tion, must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

The  money  v/as  sent  by  me  to  Jiim. 

ExPLAVATTov Sent  ft'/  snmo  one,  sent  to  some  one  ;  hence  th'  ra  is  evidently  a  rela- 
tion b  twecii  Oy  an  I  me,  ami  beiween  to  an. I  hini.  Observe  als  >  that  the  objective  forma, 
we  an  1  him,  -.m  I  nut  tbe  nomiaadvc  lorias,  /  aad  /:e,  will  make  good  sense  afttr  ihe 
preiH>sitions.    Ilence  ihe  Rue. 

W.  Between  you  and  /  there  is  little  difTerence  of  opinion. 
I  do  not  know  tcho  she  went  with. 
I  gave  it  to  somebody ;  I  have  forgotten  tcJio. 

RULE  VI.  — Objectives. 
A  Noun  or  Pronoun  that  limits  the  meaninit  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adv^crb,  is  sometimes  used  in  tho 
objective  casf?  without  a  preposition  expressed. 

Sometimes  a  substantive  is  thus  used  in  the  objective  case,  to  limit  a  noun. 

This  Rule  is  designed  to  reach  all  thos-e  objective  nouns  and  pro- 
noun?, which,  by  the  idiom  of  our  language,  are  commonly  used  to  limit 
other  words  adverbially,  or  in  the  sense  of  adjuncts,  without  having  a 
governing  word  expressed.  It  is  therefore  applicable  to  some  noung 
that  show  the  time,  extent,  cUredlon,  manner,  value,  or  quant  it  fj ;  to 
the  indirect  objects  after  such  verbs  as  fjii-e,  lend,  offer,  present,  etc. ; 
and  to  the  objects  which  follow  the  words  lik'e,  near,  worth,  oppoaite^ 
etc.  By  supplying  a  preposition,. the  Rule  can  be  dispensed  with. 
—  See  k  284  and  p.  222. 

We  sailed  north,  a  hundred  miles,  the  first  day. 
We  sailed  toward  the  north,  over  a  hundred  miles  of  space,  during  the  first  day. 
It  is  Iby]  a  ton  heavier.     It  happened  five  times.     Ice  a  foot  thick. 
He  wears  his  coat  cXosik  fashion.     It  is  worth  nothing. 
Give  [to]  me  the  reins.    Oranges  grow,  like  apples,  on  small  trees. 
W.  My  landlady  had  a  daughter  o/'nine  years  old.  —  Swift, 
Just  beyond  the  church  is  a  lot  o/"  sixty  feet  square. 

RULE  VII.  — Same  Case. 
A  Noun  or  Pronoun  used  for  explanation  or  em- 
phasis, by  being  predicated  of  another,  or  put  in  apposi- 
tion with  another,  must  be  in  the  same  case. 


RULES   OF   SYNTAX.  193 

Jones  is  a  lawyer.     Tlie  lawyer  is  Jones, 
It  is  Jones  the  laioyer.     He  himself  h  Jones  the  laicycr. 
Explanation.  — Since  Jones  is  a  lawyer,  th?re  must  be  a  relation  between  the  words 

Jones  anil  lawyer  ;  and  since  eacU  word  can  be  used  as  the  uomiuative  to  ts,  both  must 

be  i;»  the  same  c;ise. 

For  an  explanation  of  predication  and  apposition,  see  pp.  99  and  100. 
Words  in  apposition  aro  sometimes  connected  by  as,  or,  and,  or  than, 
W.  I  knew  it  was  him.     I  knew  it  to  be  he.     hkmef 
Rcniark.  —  A  substantive  put  ia  apposition  with  a  clause,  phrase,  or 

word  that  has  not  case,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case;   as,    "He  re« 

solved  to  rely  on  bimself,  — a  resolution  which  he  kept." 

HULE   VIII.  — Two   Cases. 
The  pronoun  "what,  when  it  comprises  a  simple  relative 
and  its  antecedent,  has  a  double  construction  in  regard  to 
case. 

I  remember  icJiat  was  said. 
What  13  here  used  as  the  object  of  remember^  and  also  as  the  subject  of  was  mid. 
RuIj  VIII   is  given  merely  as  a  convenience  ;  for  this  Uule  caa  be  dispensed  with,  bj 
applying  two  other  Rules. 

\Y.  Give  thai  what  you  can  spare,  to  the  poor. 
ITote  I. —  A  Compound  Relative,  or  a  similar  expression, 
may  furnisli  two  cases,  when  its  form  allovrs  them. 

Whoever  sins,  must  suffer.     Take  whichever  horse  you  like. 
Whoever  is  used  as  the  nominative  to  sins,  and  also  as  the  nominative  to  must  suffer. 
I  will  employ  tchomsoevcr  yon  recommend. 
What  moneij  he  brouj^ht  with  him,  was  soon  spent. 
Observation  1.  —  When  the  form  of  the  relative  does  not 
allow  the  two  cases  required,  it  must  take  the  form  needed  for 
its  own  clause,  and  an  antecedent  must  be  supplied  in  parsing. 
RULE  IX.  — Pronouns. 
A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  in  gender, 
person,  and  number. 

Mary  has  lost  her  lx)nnet. 
Explanation.  —  TTer  must  be  of  the  same  gend»r,  person,  and  number  as  Mary;  for  If 
it  were  Uitlcrent  in  any  ot  these  respects,  it  is  evident  that  it  could  not  denote  Mary. 

For  an  explanation  of  antecedents,  see  pp.  73  and  143. 
W.  Each  of  our  party  carried  a  knapsack  with  them. 

Not  one  of  the  boys  should  come  without  their  books. 

You  and  your  playmates  must  learn  their  lessons. 

The  earth  is  my  mother ;  and  I  will  recline  upon  its  bosom. 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

RULE  X.  —  AnTiCLEs,  Adjectives,  and  Participles. 

An  Article,  an  Acljsctivo,  or  a  Participle,  belongs 
to  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  relates. 

The  girl  brought  a  large  rose  just  refrei^hed  by  a  shower. 

ExpLASATTo>».  -  Tht'  *hnt  t  a  what  ?  What  kind  of  rose  ?  Observe  that  both  lon-ge 
and  refreshed  describe  the  rose. 

Note  II.  —  An  Adjective  that  implies  number,  must  agree  in 
this  respect  with  the  substantive  to  which  it  relates. 

For  the  sake  of  greater  definitencs?,  this  Note,  which  5s  applicable  to  the  adjectives 
thi/i,  these,  that,  thoae,  two.  three.  Jour,  etc.,  may  be  used  ia  parsingj  though  the  Rule 
can  also  be  used  in  place  of  it. 

W«  You  have  been  playing  thin  two  hours.  ^ 

How  do  you  like  fJiose  kind  of  apples  ? 
The  room  is  c'v^htccn  foot  long,  and  sixteen  _/bof  wide. 

ITote  III.  —  An  Adjective  or  a  Participle  is  sometimes  used 
absolutely,  after  a  participle  or  an  infinitive. 

The  way  to  be  hnpjvj  is  to  be  pood.     The  dread  of  heini^  poor. 
To  appear  discouraged  is  the  surest  way  to  invite  an  attack. 

Observe  that  happy,  good,  poor,  and  diar.ottragfd,  arc  not  used  with  the  namog  of  the 
persons  descril>cd.  it  does  rot  seem  to  u<  Hint  it  would  be  iin]iropor  to  jiarsc  the  cntiro 
phrase  simply  .as  a  noun,  according  to  Note  IV  j  thus  dispensing  with  this  Note  altogether. 

Obs.  2.  —  When  the  article  stands  only  before  the  first  of 
two  or  more  connected  nouns,M*t  belongs  to  them  jointly  if  they 
denote  but  one  person  or  thing,  or  more  viewed  as  one ;  if  not, 
\t  belongs  to  the  first  noun,  and  is  understood  before  each  of 
the  others. 

I  saw  Webster,  tha  prent  ufatp.imnn  and  orator. 

A  man  and  horiie  passed  by  the  honae  .ind  lot. 

TJie  man,  [the]  woman,  and  [the]  child,  were  drowned. 

Obs.  3.  —  When  two  or  more  adjectives  come  between  an 
article  and  a  plural  noun,  they  sometimes  qualify  each  only  a 
part  of  what  the  noun  denotes.  ■' 

"  The  New  and  Old  Tkstamkvts  "  =  The  New  Testament  and  the  Old 
Testament ;  not,  The  Now  Testaments  and  the  Old  Testaments. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  195 

RULE  XI.  — Pinito  Verbs. 
A  PinitQ  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  in  person 
and  number. 

John  sfufUes.    I  stwhj.    I  am.     He  is.     They  are. 

rxpLANATioN  —  Siiicc  John  does  the  Btuflyinjr,  there  is  obviously  a  relation  between 
Jnlin  .-iiid  .itmlir/t.  Observe  also  that  we  ca.i  not  say,  when  6|K;akiiij?  properly.  "John 
stU'l!/,''^  'I  /.<f,"  "  IL;  am  ";  but  we  must  use  with  each  subject  that  f  >rm  of  the  verb 
which  will  agree  with  it  iu  person  aud  number  according  to  tlic  Conjugation,  pp.  1C2-169. 

For  an  explanation  of  the  different  kinds  of  subjects,  see  p.  143. 

W.  I  always  learns  my  lessons  before  I  goes  to  school. 

IMy  outlays  is  greater  than  my  income. 

Five  is  too  many  to  ride  in  the  canoe  at  once. 

There  is  six  cords  of  wood  in  the  pile. 

That  which  you  yourself /eas  n.s7t-«/. 

What  signifies  fair  words  without  good  deeds  ? 

lie  dare  not  say  it  to  my  face. 

I  called,  but  you  icas  not  at  home. 

A  finite  verb  is  sometimes  iisetl  v/Ithont  a  subject. 

"  Mescems."     "  Methhiks."     "  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  imajre.** 

Thtre  are  but  few  instances  in  which  verba  are  used  so-,  .ind  prob.ably  the  simplest  way 
to  parse  these  few  if,  to  supply  »/.  t/io'i,  cr  i/e,  even  vlun  t'lo  s.;nse  riust  Ik;  strained  a 
little  The  tivo  or  three  ;in()mHl()us  expressions  of  this  kind,  as  mcthin/cs,  mctkoucjhty 
caa  be  easily  disposed  of  by  the  figure  tnallagt. 

RULE  XII.  — Infinitivca. 
An  Inlinitivo  depends  on  the  word  wliicli  it  limits,  or 
which  leads  to  its  use. 

-^  We  were  anxious  to  return  that  night. 

The  Passions  oft,  to  hear  her  shell, 
Thronged  around  her  magic  cell. 
The  definitions  are  so  arranged  as  to  he  easily  learned. 

To  return  limits  nnxinvft,  by  showin-r  as  to  what  we  were  anxious  5  and  it  therefore 
d -pends  on  anxtow*.  acorlinsr  to  Ilul;  XII.  To  hear  limits  tkron-jed,  by  showin};  for 
what  purpose  ;  and  it  therefore  depen<l3  on  t/ironjcd,  rxcorJing  1 1  Rule  X[I.  To  be 
learn fft  depends  on  a.t,  arcordinff  to  the  list  clause  cf  Hub  XII.  (See  pp.  153  and  216.) 
An  infinitive  depends  on  the  word  iDitli  whick  it  malccs  sijntax. 

ITote  IV.  — An  Infinitive,  a  Participle,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Clause, 
may  be  used  as  a  noun  in  any  case  except  the  possessive. 

To  he  trithojtt  irnnts  is  the  prero<rative  of  God  only. 
Ilia  Imnrj  IjIooc/i/  was  the  cause  of  suspicion. 
It  is  best  }iot  to  have  an>/  thing  to  do  with  him. 


196         "  ENGLISH.  GRAMMAR. 

He  know?  ichm  to  purcJia<;e.     lie  knows  what  to  say. 

He  knows  v-heii  it.  is  best  not  to  jmrchase, 

**  Txizji  tcire  !  "  exclaimed  t!ic  dial-fihite.     "  Ivr//  (/oorf,"  replied  the  pen* 

dulum.     (Next  parse  the  separate  words  as  usual.) 

This  Note  c.in  be  dispensed  with  by  applying  tlie  Rule  of  Syntax  which  is  applicable  to 
th  ■  case  in  which  the  word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  used.  When  an  infinitive  or  u  pnrticipl« 
assuniL's  case,  it  niHy  be  treated  as  a  noun  would  be  in  the  same  situiiion.  liut  some- 
tim-'s  the  infinitive  or  participle  is  so  intimately  Mended  with  other  words,  that  it  seems 
absolutely  necessary  to  take  the  whole  phrase  as  one  thing  5  aud  in  such  cases  the  Note 
is  i)reterable  to  auy  of  the  Rules. 

Note  V.  —  A  Participle  or  an  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used 
independently,  in  the  sense  of  a  clause. 

Generally  spml-ing,  youncf  m^n  are  best  for  business. 

We,  generally  speaking,  would  say,  that  young  men  are  best  far  business. 

But  to  proceed  :  it  has  been  frenuontly  remarked,  that,  etc. 

But  it  is  time  to  proceed,  and  therefore  let  u<  rfn°w  tSe  pubject  thus-  it  has  been,  etc. 

Supplied  words  ofteu  vary  the  meaning,  or  make  the  sentence  clumsy.  Iljaco  the  Note. 

EULB   XIII. -Adverbs. 
An  Adverb  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  another  adverb. 

"  The  horse  runs  rapidly."    Runs  Iwrc  1 
■   "The  horse  runs  vcnj  rapidly."     How  rapidl}'? 
"  The  horse  is  verij  stron;^."     IIow  stronp;  ? 
W.  He  spoke  clear  and  correct.     A  remnrlxihle  fine  country. 
She  dresses  suitable  to  her  means  and  station. 

Note  VI.  —  A  Conjunctive  Adverb  joins  a  modifying  clause 
or  phrase  to  some  other  word. 

See  p.  173,  for  examples;  and  pp.  210-226,  for  remarks. 

Note  VII.  —  Sometimes  an  Adverb  modifies  a  phrase  or 
a  clause;  and  some  adverbs  of  addition,  exclusion,  emphasis,  or 
quantify,  may  relate  to  any  part  of  a  sentence. 

♦*  Drydon  wrote  mere  I  if  |  /or  the  peopU."  —  .Tohnsoji. 

"Just  I  as  I  appronclml  thejunrjlc,  the  panther  made  a  spring." 

"  Not  even  \  a  philosopher  can  endure  the  toothache  patiently.'* 

Even  relates  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence;  and  not  relates  to  the  subject  as  modified 
by  even.    Some  of  these  adverbs  are  a  species  of  conjunctive  adverbs.  —  See  p.  186. 

ITote  VIII. —  An  Adverb  is  sometimes  used  independently. 
"  Yes,  my  lord."     "  No;  I  was  not  there."  —  See  p.  174. 


RULES  0?  SYNTAX.  197 

RTJIjE  XIV.— Prepositions. 
A  Preposition  shows  the  relation  of  an  object  to  some 
other  word  on  wliich  the  adjunct  depends. 
A  man  of  wisdom  spoke.     The  man  spoke  of  wisdom. 

RtJLE  XV.  — Conjunctions. 

A  Coiyunction  connects  words,  phrases,  clauses,  or 
sentences. 

Words  or  phrases,  connected  by  conjunctions,  are  generally  in  the 
same  construction. 

*'  Weeds  and  briers  grow  in  the  field,  because  it  is  not  cultivated." 

Noto  IX. — As  or  than  sometimes  joins  a  word  or  phrase 
to  a  clause,  in  stead  of  connecting  two  clauses. 

Words  can  sometimes  hs  supplied  after  the  infinitive,  so  as  to  make  two  clauses;  BS, 
*'  Be  so  kind  as  to  write  to  me  "  [would  be.  kind].  But  in  most  iustauces  words  can  not 
be  thus  supplied  without  varying  or  dusti'uying  the  sense. 

EXJLE   XVI.  — Interjections. 
An  Inteijection  has  no  gramnriatical  connection  with 

other  words.  —  See  §  563  and  5G8. 

Can  yon  repeat  Rule  lst?—2d?  —  3d?  —  4tJif  —  5/kf  —  Gth?^ 
7th ?  —  Slh  f  —  dth ?  —  10//i  f—lUh?—  12th ?  —  13tk?  —  Uth  ?  — 
lothf—Uthf—  Note  Istf  —2df  —  Zdf  —  ^tki  —  bthf  —  Qtht-^ 
7thf  —  8th?—9th? 

POSITION.  * 

Articles  generally  precede  their  substantives. 

Adjectives  precede  or  follow  their  substantives. 

Participles  precede  or  follow  their  substantives. 

Pronouns  generally  follow  their  antecedents. 

Infinitives  generally  follow  the  words  on  which  they  depend. 

Finite  verbs  generally  follow  their  subjects. 

Adverbs  generally  follow  their  verbs  or  the  auxiliaries,  and 
precede  the  adjectives  or  adverbs  modified. 

Possessive  words  precede  the  names  of  the  things  owned. 

Objective  words  generally  follow  their  governing  words. 

Explanatory  words  generally  follow  the  words  explained. 

In  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  words  logically  and  rhetorically  considered,  see  p.  260. 


198  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

General  Formula.  —  The  part  of  speech,  and  why ;  the 
kind,  and  why ;  the  properties,  and  why ;  the  relation  to  other 
words,  and  according  to  what  Rule. 

ARTICLES, 
rormula.  —  An  article,  and  -why ;  ^/^/"'/^'     C  and     Tvhy  ;    to 
what  it  belongs,  and  according  to  what  Rule. 
The  river. 

Analysis.  —  Tlie  river  is  a  phrase.  The  principal  word  is  river,  modified 
by  tlie  Hrticie  iht.  (All  the  following  exercises  maybe  first  analyzed,  and 
then  parsed,  if  the  teacher  deems  it  best  to  do  so.) 

Parsing. — The  is  an  article,  it  is  placed  before  a  noun  to  limit  its 
meaning;  drjinite,  it  shows  that  some  particular  river  is  meant;  and  it  be- 
longs to  rioer,  accordinjjj  to  llule  X  :  An  article  belongs  to  the  noun  to  which 
it  relates. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  parsing,  to  repeat  more  of  a  Rule  than  the  example  requires. 

Abridged.  —  Tlie  is  the  definite  article ;  and  it  belongs  to  river,  etc. 

River  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ;  common,  it  is  a  name  that  can  be  applied 
to  all  objects  of  the  same  kind ;  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a  male 
nor  a  female ;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular 
number,  it  means  but  one. 

In  like  manner  parse  the  following  phrases : -^ 

The  man.         The  men.  A  rose.  An  arrow. 

The  horse.       The  horses.         A  melon.  An  island. 

The  child.       The  children.     A  university.  An  uncle. 

A  man^s  hat. 

Analysis.  —  A  mnn's  hat  is  a  phrase.  Tb3  principal  word  is  hat,  which  is 
modified  by  man's,  showinor  what  hat  j  and  man's  is  modified  by  a,  showing 
that  no  particular  man  is  meant. 

Parsing.  —  A  is  an  article,  it  is  placed  before  a  noun  to  limit  its  mean- 
ing; iiidejiiiite,  it  thows  that  no  particular  man  is  meant;  and  it  belongs 
to  wK/n's,  according  to  Kule  X.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridgkd.  —  A  is  the  indefinite  article;  and  it  belongs  to  wan's,  etc. 

Man's  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ;  common,  it  is  a  name  common  to  all  per- 
sons of  the  same  kind  ;  masculine  gender,  it  denotes  a  male ;  third  person,  it 
denotes  the  man  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it  means  l)ut  one;  and  in 
the  possessive  case,  it  limits  the  meaning  of  hat,  according  to  Rule  III. 


PAUSING.  199 

Hat  is  parsed  like  rher. 

Abridged.  —  Man's  is  a  cnmnion  noun,  of  the  mfisonline  pender,  third 
per>on,  singular  number ;  ami  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  hat. 

A  neighbor's  farm.  The  boy's  book. 

An  Indian's  hatcliet.  The  boys'  books. 

The  Buu's  splendor.  Women's  fancies. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Pormula.  —  An  adjective,  and  why ;  If^fi^'JIIJg^'   [  and    why ; 

"whether  compared  or  not,  and  how ;  the  degree,  and  why ;  to  what  it 
belongs,  and  according  to  what  Rule. 

Descriptive  Adjectives* 

A  beautiful  morning-,  with  a  refreshing  breeze. 

Analysts.  —  A  henvtiful  mnrnivrj,  iciih  (t  refreshing  breeze,  is  a  phrase. 
(G.ve  definition.)  The  principiil  word  ir?  jrtorr«««7,  which  is  modified  by  tlio 
article  a,  tiie  ndjective  beautiful,  and  the  sidjuiict  with  a  refreshing  breeze. 
Breeze  is  modified  by  tlie  arricle  a,  the  adjective  refreihiny,  and  joined  to 
mvrniny  by  the  preposition  with. 

Beautiful  is  an  adjective,  —  a  word  nsed  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning 
oF  a  noun  ;  descriptive,  it  describes  or  qualities  the  morning  ;  compared  — 
|)OS.  beautiful,  comp.  moi-e  beautiful,  superl.  most  beautiful;  in  tlie  po'sitire 
degree,  it  expresses  simply  the  quality;  and  it  belongs  to  morning,  accord- 
ing to  Uule  X. 

JVbridgkd.  —  Beautiful  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  (compare  it,)  in  the 
positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  morning. 

Refreshing  is  a  part'cipial  adjective,  from  the  verb  refesh.  As  a  parti' 
cipfe,  it  is  present,  and  in  the  active  voice.  As  nn  adjective,  it  is  placed 
"belbre  breeze  to  describe  it;  and  belongs  to  it,  aci ording  to  Hule  X. 

Abridged.  —  liffresfiiug  is  a  participial  adjective,  from  the  verb  refresh; 
and  it  belongs  to  breeze,  according  to  Kule  X. 

A  ripe  melon.  An  upper  room.  Theblack-wingedredbird. 
The  fairest  lady.  Purling  streams.  The  red-winged  blackbird. 
A  gold  cup.        The  best  gift.      A  good  boy's  mother. 

Definitive   Adjectives* 

Formula.  -^  An  adjecliie,  and  why ;  the  kind^  and  why;  to  what 
it  belongs,  and  according  to  what  Rule. 

All  men.  Fi^re  dollars. 

All  is  an  adjective,  it  is  nsed  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun ;  defni- 


200  ENGLISH  GRAM^IAR. 

live,  it  specifics  how  many  men  are  meant ;  and  it  belongs  to  men,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  X. 

Abridged.  —  All  is  a  pronominal  definitive  adjective ;  and  belongs  to 
men,  according  to  Utile  X. 

Five  is  an  adjective,  a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  numeral,  and  of  the  cardinal 
kind,  because  it  expresses  number  and  tells  how  many  ;  and  it  belongs  to 
dollars,  according  to  Rule  X. 

Or  say,  —  "  and  it  agrees  with  men,  In  the  plural  number,  according  to  Note  I.'*^ 

Abridged.  —  Fioe  is  a  numeral  definitive  adjective,  of  the  cardinal 
kind  ;  and  belongs  to  dollars,  according  to  Rule  X. 

Yonder  house.      That  ham.  Every  fourth  man. 

This  tree.  Each  pupil.  Those  two  benches. 

These  trees.         Such  a  person.     The  lawyer's  own  case. 

NOUNS. 

Formula.  —  A  noun,  and  why ;  ^^'^^fjf,^'^^  j-  and  why ;  collective, 
and  why ;  gender,  and  why ;  person,  and  why ;  number,  and  why ; 
declension ;  case,  and  Rule. 

Snow  is  falling. 

AxAT-TSTS.  —  Snow  IS  fiilUnrj,  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Snow  is  the 
.subject,  and  isJ'ulUng  is' the  predicate. 

Snciw  is  a  vonn,  it  is  a  name  ;  common,  it  is  a  name  common  to  all  sub- 
stance of  the  same  kind  ;  neuter  rjrnder,  etc.  (see  river,  p.  198) ;  and  in  the 
vomimtive  case  —  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  falling  —  according  to 
Rule  I. 

AnniDGED.  —  Snow  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number ;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  is  falling.     Rule  I. 

Parsing  is  usually  Abridged,  by  simply  omitting  the  reasons. 

Parse  the  articles,  the  adjectives,  and  the  nouns  :  — 

Galile'o  invented  the  telescope. 

Ilenry  Johnson's  cattle  have  eaten  our  grass. 

James  the  coachman  i»  sick.      George  is  a  gentleman. 

Alice,  bring  j'onr  books,  slate,  and  paper. 

Illy  mother  being  sick,  I  remained  at  home. 


PARSING.  201 

PRONOUNS. 

personal^         "| 

Formula.-iF-onm/n,an(lwliy;    Ztrmf^atlce,    \    ^'^^^    ^^'^^ 

adjeclive^         J 
gender,  and  why ;  person,  and  why ;   number^  and  why  ;  declension ; 
case,  and  Rule. 

Personal   Prononns. 
I  myself  saw  John  and  his  brother. 

AxAl.TSTa.  —  This  is  a  simple  dechrative  sentence.  The  mbjcct  is  I  my- 
$elf';  J  is  the  pubject-noniiiiijtive,  which  is  modified  by  tlie  emphatic  npposi- 
tive  myself.  Saw  John  and  his  brother,  is  the  prerlicate;  ti(tw  is  the  predicate- 
verb,  vvin'ch  is  limited  by  the  objects  John  and  Orulliu;  which  are  coiiuecied 
by  mid,  and  the  latter  of  which  is  limited  by  his. 

I  is  a  pronoun,  it  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun ;  personal,  it  is  one  oi 
those  pronouns  which  disiinguisli  the  grammatical  persons;  of  the  common 
gender,  it  may  denote  cither  a  male  or  a  female;  Jimt  person,  it  denotes  tho 
speaker;  sirupdar  number,  it  means  but  one;  nom./;  and  in  the  nomina^ 
live  case  —  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  smo  —  according  to  Rule  I. 

AiiKinGED.  —  /  is  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  common  gender,  first  per- 
son, singular  numl)Cr;  and  in  the  nom.  case  to  the  verb  sttu).     Rule  I. 

Myself  is  a  pronoun,  — a  word  used  in  steail  of  a  noim  ;  compound,  it  ia 
compoundvd  of  vn/  and  self;  personal,  etc.  *  *  *  and  iu  tho  nonunative  case, 
to  agree  with  /,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Abridged.  —  Mijstlf\6  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  etc. 

His  is  a  pronoun,  —  a  word  used  iu  stead  of  a  noun  ;  personal,  it  is  one 
of  those  pronouns  which  distinguish  the  grammatical  persons  ;  of  the  mas- 
culine gender,  third  per.-on,  and  singular  number,  to  agree  with  John, 
according  to  Rule  IX  ;  (repeat  it;)  nom.  he,  poss.  his;  and  in  the  possta^ 
sire  case  —  it  limits  the  meaning  of  brother  —  according  to  Rule  III. 

Abridged. —  His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  od 
pers.,  s.  n.,  to  agree  with  John,  according  to  Rule  IX  ;  (repeat  it;)  and  ii^ 
the  po-scssivc  case,  governed  by  brother,  according  to  Rule  III. 

Parse  the  articles,  the  adjectives,  the  nouns,  and  the  pronouns :  — 
We  caught  him.  lie  came  with  me. 

Albert  hurt  himself.  John,  you  are  wanted. 

Art  thou  the  man  ?  Thou-  majestic  Ocean^ 

Martha  and  Mary  have  recited  their  lessons. 
A  dutiful  son  is  the  delight^  of  his  parents. 
Your  horse  trots  well,  but  mine  paces. 

Say,  Mine  is  used  for  my  and  horse.    (Now  parse  each  word.) 
9* 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Relative   Pronouns. 

Read  thy  doom  in  the  flowers,  which  fade  and  die. 
Which  is  rt  jtronoan,—  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun ;  rehtlioe,  it  stands 
in  clojc  relation  to  an  aniecedi-nt,  and  joins'  to  it  a  descriptive  clause  ;  of 
th'j  njuter  jjjender,  third  per-on,  and  plural  number,  to  aj^rec  with  Hwrei-s, 
according  to  Rule  IX;  (repeat  it;)  and  in  \\\q  vomiuatice  case — it  is  the 
sul)ject  of  the  verbs //t/g  and  c//e  —  according;  to  Kule  I. 

Abridged. —  Which  is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third 
person,  and  singular  number,  to  agree  \\'\ih  Jlowers,  according  to  Kule  IX; 
and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verbs //(/«  and  die.    Rule  I. 

James  reads  what  pleases  him. 

IrThat  is  a  pronoun,  —  a  word  u^ed  in  stead  of  a  noun  ;  niofive,  it  makes 
its  clause  d.!pcndent  on  another;  of  the  netUfir  ycmler,  it  denotes  neither  a 
male  nor  a  fomale ;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  sin- 
gular  nnmhpr,  it  means  but  one ;  and  it  is  here  used  as  the  object  of  reads 
and  the  subject  of  pleasps, — because  it  takes  the  place  of  that  which  or  ihiny 
which,  —  according  to  Rule  VIII. 

AuniDGED.  —  What  is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third 
person,  singular  nutnber,  etc. 

She  who  studies  her  glass,  neglects  her  heart. 
It  was  1  that  went.     I  am  His  who  created  me. 
He  was  such  a  talker  as  conld  delight  us  all. 
Take  whatever  you  like.     What  is  dear,  few  buy. 
Whoever  gives  to  the  poor,  lends  to  the  Lord. 
Interrogative   Pronouns* 
Whom  did  you  see? 
Whom  is  a  pronoun,  —  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun ;  {nttmrrafhe,  it  is 
used  to  ask  a  question  ;  of  the  common  gender,  it  may  denote  cither  a  male 
or  a  fomale;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  sinfjnlar 
nuuihfT,  it  means  but  one ;  and  in  the  objective  case  —  it  is  the  object  of  ihc 
verb  did  see  —  according  to  Rule  IV. 

Abridged. —  Whom  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  of  the  com.  gen.,  3d 
pers.,  s.  n. ;  and  in  the  obj.  case,  governed  by  did  see,  etc. 

I  do  not  know  what  he  is  doing. 

"What  he  is  doing,  is  a  clause  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun ;  of  the 
neuter  gender,  third  person,  sinjrnlar  number;  and  in  the  objective  case  — 
it  is  the  object  of  do  know  —  according  to  liuie  IV. 


PARSING.  203 

"What  is  a  provonn,  —  aVorfl  used  in  stead  of  a  nonn  ;  rt>xpoy)f!iv<>,  it  U  used 
as  ifin  answer  lo  a  quesiioii ;  of  ihu  neuter  (/euilcr,  it  denoius  neither  a  nmlo 
nor  a  female;  third  person,  it  rc]>rescnrs  an  o'lject  ns  spoken  of;  Rirmnlar 
numb'-r,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  the  objective  cast-—  it  is  tiie  oi)jeet  of  the 
verb  is  doinj  —  accord injj;'to  liule  IV. 

Abriogkd.  —  What  is  a  responsive  relative  pronoun,  of  the  n.  jr..  3d  p., 
s.  n, ;  and  in  the  obj.  case,  governed  by  is  douxj,  according  to  Itule  IV. 

Wiio  was  Bleiinerhasset  ?     AVho  is  my  neig-hbor  ? 
Which  is  it  ?     Who  caa  tell  what  democriicy  is  ? 

Adjective   Pronouns. 

The  old  bird  feeds  her  young  ones. 

Ones  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  it  is  a  common  specifying  adjective  used 
as  a  pronoun  ;  it  is  here  used  in  phice  of  birds,  and  is  therefore  of  the  com- 
jnon  gender,  third  person,  and  plural  number;  and  in  the  objective  case  — 
being  the  object  of  the  \erh/eeds  —  according  to  Kulc  IV. 

AnitiDGiii).  —  Ones  is  an  indefinite  adjective  pronoun,  of  the  c.  p.,  3d 
p.,  and  pi.  n.;  and  in  the  objective  case  —  governed  by  the  vcvh  feeds  — 
according  to  Rule  IV. 

Others  may  be  wiser,  but  none  are  more  amiable. 
Some  were  for  this,  and  some  for  that. 

VERBS. 

Finite   Verbs. 

Formula.  —  A  verb,  nvid  why;  principal  parts ;  T;^"''!''      i   and 

_,         tra7tn(ii'e,yvithvoice,  )   „  ,i  „t     ,    .1  i        1      ,         ., 

^^y'   intransiti^^e  or  neuler,  [  ^"^^  ^^^^5    the  mood,  and  why;    the 

tense,  and  why,  —  with  form,  and  why ;    conjufjation  ;    the  person 
and  number,  to  agree  wit'i  its  subject ,  according  to  Rule  XL 

Jlention  Form  only  when  it  is  progi-essive,  or  emphatic,  or  passive  without 
being  passive  in  sense. 

He  is  ploughing  the  field  which  was  bought  last  year. 

Is  ploughing  is  a  verb,  it  expresses  the  act  of  a  subject ;  princ'-pnl  parts 
J—  pies.  p'OUfjh,  past,  plonyJied,  pres.  part,  jilowjldnff,  perf  part.  phii(//ied ; 
fpfjular,  it  takes  the  ending  ed;  transitive,  it  has  an  object  (jield),  —  and  in 
the  active  voice,  because  it  represents  its  subject  as  acting  j  indicative  tnood. 


204  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

it  expresses  nn  arfnal  occurrence  or  fact ;  present  tense,  it  denotes  a  present 
act,  —  and  in  the  progressive  form,  it  represents  it  as  continuing  ;  (singular 
number  —  First  person,  I  am  plowjidng ;  2il  p.,  You  ore  plourjhing ;  3(1  p., 
lie  is  ploiifjfiing  ; )  and  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its 
subject y<///jer,  according  to  llule  XI. 

Abridged. — Is  ploufjJiinfj  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  from  the  verb 
plonijli;  (principal  parts,  —  \)vcs.  jiloitfjh,  ])i\.'it  plott;/hed,  pert  part,  ploughed ;) 
in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  progressive  form  ;  and  in  the  3d  p. 
and  s.  n.,  to  agree  with  its  subjectyu//ier,  according  to  Rule  XI. 

Was  bought  is  a  verb,  it  affirms  something  of  a  subject ;  principal  parts, 
pres.  bill/,  past  bought,  pres.  part,  bajing,  perf.  part,  boiuihi ;  irregular,  it  docs 
not  assume  the  ending  «/;  transitive  —  but  in  the  passice  voice,  because  it  af- 
firms tlie  act  of  the  object  acted  upon  ;  indicative  mood,  it  asserts  something 
as  an  actual  occurrence  or  fact;  past  tense,  it  refers  the  act  simply  to  past 
time;  third  person  and  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  which,  ac- 
cording to  liulc  XI. 

Abkidgld.  —  Was  bought  is  an  irr.  pass,  verb,  from  the  verb  hwj,  etc- 

Parse  the  articles,  adjectives,  jiouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs :  — 

Regular  and  Irregular,  Transitive  and  Intransitive. 
The  sun  warms  the  j^arth.     They  struck  me. 
Birds  fly.     Kivers  flow.     It  was  I. 
The  rose  is  beautiful.     Fierce  was  the  conflict. 

Voices. 
She  broke  the  pitcher.     The  pitcher  was  broken. 
They  named  her  Mary.     She  was  named  Mary. 

Moods. 
Robert  sold  his  horse.     Can  you  spell  phthisic? 
Were  he  rich,  he  would  be  lazy.     Be  sincere. 

Tenses. 

The  distant  hills  look  blue.     The  robber  was  caught 
The  soldiers  will  be  attacked.     Had  I  known  it. 
The  day  will  have  passed.     Do  not  venture  yourself. 
The  apples  miglit  have  been  eaten.    Tall  pines  are  rustling. 
She  may  have  been  handsome.     She  has  been  teaching. 
I  do  object.     Thou  hast  a  heart  of  adamant. 


PARSING.  205 

Persons  and  Numbers. 
Bees  collect  honey.     Reckless  youth  makes  rueful  age. 
Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man.     You  and  I  are  invited. 
Monda}^  or  Tuesday  was  the  day  on  which  it  happened. 
Ilis  family  is  large.     The  multitude  pursue  pleasure. 
Every  house  has  a  garden.     Who  are  they  ? 

TTart  is  of  the  3.1  p.,  pi.  n..  ti  a?ree  with  time  and  tide. —a,  plural  subject— according 
to  Rule  XI.  —See  pp.  144,  145,  140. 

INFINITIVES   AND    rARTICIPLES. 

iramitive,  with  voice,  \        i     u    •  J  ^^  ^^'^^^^  '^  depends,  Rule  XII. 
inlransidoe  or  neuter,    j   ^      ^  ^  '  |  to  Avliat  it  belongs,  Rule  X. 

The  sun  having  set,  we  were  obliged  to  return  home. 

Having  set  is  a  pmilriple.  —  a  foi-m  of  the  verb  tliat  expresses  the  act 
or  state  without  predicatini;  it,  and  jrencrally  rcseml>les  an  adjective;  com- 
pound, it  consists  ofhovimf,  combined  with  another  participle;  perfect,  it  ex- 
presses the  act  or  state  as  com[)lete(l  at  the  timj  referred  to  ;  ijitnins'tivc,  it 
does  not  have  an  object;  and  it  belongs  to  sun,  according  to  Rule  X. 

The  forms  of  the  participle,  in  each  voice,  may  also  be  mentioned  in  parsing. 

AnRTDGi:D.  —  Harhg  set  is  a  compound  perfect  participle,  from  the 
irregular,  intransitive  verb  set,  set,  setting,  stt ;  and  it  belongs  to  sun,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  X. 

To  return  is  an  infinitive,  —  a  form  of  the  verb  that  generally  begins 
with  ^0,  and  that  expresses  the  act  or  state  without  predicating  it;  prcsmt, 
it  denotes  simply  the  act;  intransitive,  it  does  not  have  an  object;  and  \% 
depends  on  was  obll/eJ,  according  to  Rule  XII. 

Abridged.  —  To  return  is  a  present  infinitive,  from  the  regular,  intransi- 
tive verb  return,  returned,  returning,  returned ;  and  it  depends  on  tuas  obliged, 
according  to  Rule  XII. 

The  forms  of  the  infinitive,  in  each  voice,  may  also  be  mentioned  in  parsing. 

Not  to  be  sometimes  deceived  is  impossible. 
To  be  deceived  is  an  infinitive  used  as  a  noun.  As  an  infinitive,  it  is 
present,  transitive,  in  the  passive  voice,  and  mndidcd  adverbially.  As  a 
noun,  it  is  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  f-inGrular  number  ;  and  with 
the  rest  of  the  phrase  of  which  it  is  the  chief  word,  it  in  used  as  the  subjecS 
of  the  verb  is,  according  to  Note  IV, 


206  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

I  insist  on  writing  the  letter. 
Writing  i^  ft  jxut/(i;)i(il  noun,  tVom  ihe  irn-jrulnr  verb  irn'tp,  wrote,  miting, 
writlrn.    As  a  jntr/n  i/>/f,  it  is  presetJt,  traiisirivi.',  and  in  the  active  voice.   As 
a  iioKii.  it  is  of  the  iicurer  {reiuler,  third  person,  !.in<ruhir  nnmbcr ;  and  in  the 
objiictive  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  on,  aecordii'j^  to  Rule  V. 

Participles. 

The  Indians  fled,  leaving  their  mules  tied  to  the  bushes. 
The  machinery,  being  oiled,  runs  well. 
Time  and  thinking  tame  the  strongest  grief. 
Of  making  many  books,  there  is  uo  end. 

Infinitives. 

We  had  a  great  curiosity  to  see  the  battle-field. 

I  ordered  him  to  bo  brought.     We  are  glad  to  see  you. 

lie  ought  to  have  written.     Let  no  one  pass. 

She  is  wiser  than  to  believe  his  flattery. 

Not  to  love  is  unnatural.     I  forgot  to  mention  it. 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose^  that  he  will  try  to  escape. 

ADVERBS. 

Formnla.  —  An  adverb,  and  why;  of  what  "kind;  whether  comr 
pared,  and  how  ;  Avhat  it  modifies;  Rule  or  Note. 

Conjunctive  Aovkko.  —  As  an  adverb,  it  modifies  the  verb .  in  its 

own  chmse,  by  expressing  ,  (Rule  XUi);  fts  a  conjunctice  adverb,  it  re- 
fers its  clause  to ,  (Note  VI). 

The  trees  are  waving  beautifully. 

Beautifully  is  an  adrprh,  it  modifies  the  meanine  of  a  verb  (nrfi  irav- 
inrj) ;  it  is  an  adverb  of  manner ;  and  it  modifies  the  verb  are  tuaving,  ac- 
cordinjr  to  Rule  XIII. 

Abridged. —  Bfnntifnlhi  is  nn  adverb  of  mannfr.  ran  be  compared,  and 
modifies  the  verb  are.  wnvinq,  acrordinir  to  Hnle  XIII. 

Since  but  few  ndvorbt  cn'\  be  rnrnnnrod,  \^  i«  not  npcessarv.  in  parkin?  ad- 
verb«,  to  onmno-e  tliem,  except  when  the  adverb  happens  to  be  in  the  com- 
parative or  superlative  degree. 

1.  Adverbs  Modifying  Verba. 

The  horse  galloped  gracefully.    Our  roses  must  soon  fade. 
Then  blue  and  lofty  mountains  successively  appeared. 
Mary  sews  and  knits  well.     Here  will  I  stand. 


PAUSING.  207 

2.  Adverbs  Modifijing  Adjectives. 
Her  child  was  very  young.     lie  is  perfectly  honest. 
The  music  rose  softly  sweet.     My  hat  is  almost  new. 
John  is  most  studious.     The  wound  was  intensely  painful. 

3.  Adverbs  Modifijlng  Adverbs. 

The  horse  ran  very  fast.  Tliomaa  is  not  very  industrioua. 
He  stutters  nearly  always.  The  field  is  not  entirely  planted. 
You  did  as  well  as  I.  She  is  now  writini^  more  carefally. 
These  scenes,  once  so  delightful,  no  longer  please  him. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
Pormula.  —  A  preposition,  and  why ;  between  what  it  shows 
the  relation ;  Rule. 

The  water  (lows  over  the  dam. 

Over  is  a  pr.";Tov///on,  —  ft  word  used  to  show  the  relat'cn  between  a  fol- 
lowitij;  noun  or  |ironi»uii  and  some  other  word  ;  it  ht-rc  shows  the  relation 
oi  dam  ioJJoics,  or  hetwceu  Jlous  an<l  dam,  accordinj;  to  Rule  XIV. 

Abuidgf:d.  —  Ov<r  is  a  lyreposition,  showing  the  relation,  etc. 
I  found  a  dollar  in  the  road. 
In  spring  the  leaves  come  forth. 
We  should  not  live  beyond  our  means. 
From  virtue  to  vice  the  progress  is  gradual. 
The  river  is  washing  the  soil  from  under  the  tree. 
Ite  struggled,  like  a  hero,  against  the  evils  of  fortune. 
We  went  from  New  York  to  Washington  City,  by  railroad, 
in  eight  hours. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Pormula.  —  A  conjunction,  and  why ;  its  peculiar  nature ;  what 
it  connects.   Rule. 

The  meadow  produces  grass  and  flowers. 

And  1*3  a  rort junction, — a  word  u'*ed  to  connect  words,  phrases,  or  propo- 
sitions ;  (o/ifda'ur,  it  inii>Hc's  addition ;  co-ordinitte,  it  is  used  to  connccr  parts 
of  equal  rank  ;  and  it  hero  joins  fioiccrs  to  qraaa,  acconliuir  to  Rule  XV  : 
A  conjunction  connects  words  or  phrases  in  the  same  construction. 

Abridged.  —  And  is  a  copulative  co-ordinate  ccajimction ;  connecting 
gras»  and  fiouxn^  according  to  Rule  X  V» 


208  ENGUSH  GRAMMAR. 

You  must  either  buy  piine  or  sell  yours. 

Either  is  a  conjunction,  a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  it  corresponds  to  or^  and 
assists  it  in  connecting  two  phrases  according  to  liiilu  XV. 

Or  is  a  conjunction,  etc.  *  *  *  disjunctive,  it  disjoins  the  words  in  sense, 
notwithstanding  it  joins  them  in  form  ;  coordinate,  it  unites  parts  of  equal 
raniv ;  it  here  corresponds  to  either,  and  connects  two  phrases  according  to 
Rule  XV. 

Words  Connected. 

Learning  refines  and  elevates  the  mind. 
We  should  cultivate  our  hearts  and  minds. 
She  is  amiable,  intelligent,  and  industrious. 
Neither  flatter  nor  despise  the  rich  or  great. 

Phrases  Connected. 

Through  floods  and  through  forests  he  bounded  away. 
Death  saw  the  floweret  to  the  desert  given. 
Plucked  it  from  earth,  and  planted  it  iu  heaven. 

Clauses  or  Sentences  Connected. 

Eagles  generally  go  alone,  but  little  birds  go  in  flocks. 

Italian  music  's  sweot  because  His  dear. 

If  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  shall  have  to  remain  at  home. 

Though  bo  is  poor,  yd  ho  is  honest. 

He  was  always  courteous  to  wise  and  gifted  men  ;  for  Ixo 

knew  that  talents  are  more  glorious  than  birth   or 

riches  [are]. 

INTERJECTIONS. 
Porsiula.  —  An  interjection,  and  why ;  of  what  kind ;  Rule. 

Alas  I  no  hope  for  mo  remains. 
Alas  is  an  interjection  of  grief ;  and  it  is  used  independently.   Rule  XVL 
Ah  I  few  shall  part  vrhere  many  meet. 
0,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  West! 
0  Desdemonal,   Desdemonal  dead?     Dead  I  Oh  I  oh  I  ohl 


OBSERVATIONS.  209 


OBSEPvVATIONS. 

Parts  of  Speech.  —  Some  grammarians  include  the  articles  with 
the  adjectives,  aiul  tiius  make  but  eight  parts  of  speech;  others  set  olF  tlie 
participles  as  a  distinct  class,  and  liius  make  ten  parts  ol'  speech.  The 
classiHcution  of  words  adopted  in  this  book  seems  to  us  not  only  the  best, 
but  is  also  that  wliich  most  generally  prevails. 

Inflections.  —  Inflections  maybe  divided  into  three  classes;  dc- 
cltnsiun,  comparison,  and  covjiujation.  Nouns  and  pronouns  are  said  to  ho 
declined;  adjectives  and  adverbs,  compared ;  and  verbs,  conjtujaled.  Inflec- 
tions abound  most  about  the  core,  or  most  ancient  part,  of  a  language. 
Hence  our  irregular  verbs,  especially  the  verb  he,  our  pronouns,  and  somo 
of  our  n)ost  common  adjectives  and  nouns,  arc  the  most  irregular  words  in 
our  language.  In  the  course  of  time,  most  inflections  are  dropped,  or  they 
are  superseded  by  certain  little  words  —  such  as  preposicions,  conjunctions, 
and  auxiliary  verbs  —  which  are  simpler  and  more  obvious  signs,  aild 
therefore  better  suited  to  cxjiress  the  relations  nf  words, 

JiiJIections,  particularly  ancient  ones,  consist  sometimes  of  a  vowel 
change  in  the  word;  as,  man,  men;  f^ooac.  geese ;  cling,  clang:  sometimes 
of  a  different  ending  ;  as,  ox,  oxe«;  (ok,  foxes;  i^rait,  greater ;  give,  _y/te»; 
sometimes  of  a  syllable  or  word  prefixed ;  as,  go,  ago{ne) ;  beautiful,  ii,ore 
beautiful ;  write,  wi«//  write,  to  write:  and  sometimes  of  two  or  more  of  these 
combiued  ;  as,  weave,  woven ;  break,  Juiviug  been  broken. 

AIDS  TO  PARSING  AND  ANALYSIS. 

D:3ifjacJ  only  for  Eererescc. 
The  following  selections  comprise  the  most  important  idioms. 
Many  Avords  can  be  used  as  different  parts  of  speech. 
It  is  simply  the  manner  in  which  a  word  ii  used,  that  determines  the 
part  of  speech. 

A.     "^  man's  duties  ";  "^  summer's  day"  ;  or/Zc/g.     "To  go  a  hunt- 
ing"; preposition.     "A  few  men";  a  belongs  to  yeu;  men  as  denoting 
ono  aggregate.  —  See  Few. 
Abed,  ablaze,  abroach,  abroad,  adrift,  afoot,  aloft,  etc.     "When  these  words 
are  used  with  active  verbs,  so  as  to  imply  manner,  they  sire  adverbs. 
"When  they  are  used  with  neuter  verbs,  so  as  to  denote  mainly  the  con- 
dition of  the  subject,  they  have  very  much  the  mcanincr  of  adjectives; 
but  they  are  still  considered  adverbs,  bpcause  theij  must  be  construed  with 
verbs.     When  such  words,  however,  are  construe<l  with  nouns  rather 
than  with  verbs,  they  becorrfC  adjectives.  —  See  Asleep. 
About.     "  What  are  you  al>out?'  prep.     "  He  wantlers  a/wuf  "  ;  adv. 
Above.     "  lie  sits  al)ove  me  "  ;  prep.     *'  lie  sits  above  "  ;  adv. 

"Amounted  to  above,  a  dozen."  —  Swift.  Supply  numbrr,  or  call  ahox)e  a  dozen  ty 
Qoua.    Adjiuwu  arc  sometiincs  used  for  nount^  hs  well  as  for  adjectives  or  advtrUa. 

N 


210  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Absolutely*  "  He  is  a  friend."  "  He  being  a  friend  "  ;  "  To  be  a  friend.*'' 
"  He  i.s  friendly."  "  To  be  friendly'" ;  "  His  bei!J<^  a  frteud." 
By  thus  changing  an  intransitive  verb  into  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  the  substantive 
or  adjective,  joined  to  it,  is  tivcjuently  set  tree,  or  aOt^o/red,  from  its  chiLf  syutactical  re- 
lation ;  tliousjh  it  still  remains  cotniecteil  with  the  inlinitive  or  participte  by  a  relation  that 
is  within  the  reach  of  Analysis,  and  that  should  be  mentioned  in  analyzing. 

Adjectives.   An  adjective  may  imply  quality,  as  good ;  quantity,  as  much; 

nntnbcr,  as  /ire;  time,  as  cteruul ;  place,  as  near ;  position,  as  perjien- 

dicultir  ;  shape  or  form,  as  round ;  activity,  as  studwus.  etc.    Most  of  the 

dtffinitive  adjectives  imply  mimlter,  place,  or  relative  distinction. 

Adieu.     "  Aden  !  adieu!  my  native  land."  —  Di/rnn.  Intetjection. 

••  Wept  a  last  adieu."   "  Bid  lum  adieu  " ;  i.  e.,  say  adieu  to  him.  Noun. 

After*     "  He  came  after  me " ;  prep.    "  He  came  soon  after";  adv. 

"He  came  afier  I  left";  conjunctive  adverb. 

Before,  after,  since,  and  till,  are  usually  parsed  as  conjunctive  adverbs 

when  they  stand  before  clauses  ;  though  they  are  in  reality  prepositions  that 

govern  the  clauses  in  the  sense  of  nouns. 

Again.     "Call  acjain" ;  adv.      "Again  and  again";    i.  e.,  repeal  edi i] ; 

adv.  phr.     *'  A(jain,  it  has  been  frequently  observed,  that,"  etc. ;  conj. 

In  general,  a  phrase  should  be  parsed  as  one  word,  when  its  meaning  is 

dilL'rent  from  that  which  the  separated  words  give  ;  hence,  afjain  and  again, 

through  and  through,  erer  aud  anon,  now  and  then,  here  and  there,  over  and 

over,  should  be  considered  adverbial  phrases.     So  at  all,  at  Jirst,  at  once,  at 

last,  at  least,  at  most,  etc  ;  adv.  phrases,  rather  than  adjuncts.   "  Not  at  all " 

=  not  in  any  degree  ;  at  all,  adv.  of  degree,  modified  by  not. 

Ago,    "It  happened  a  hundred  years  ago  " ;  adv  or  adj. 

Long  ago ;  adv.  phr..  or  make  long  modify  ago,  as  in  long  l/ofore. 

Ago  is  an  adverb,  limiting  happened,  and  limited  itself  by  veavK  according  to  Rule 
VI  Or  it  is  an  adjective,  meai.ing /^as^,  and  belonging  to  years  ''Twenty  yeara 
ajone."  —  Tilotfion  ;  adj  ,  or  old  participle.  "  It  happened  a  year  before"  aud  simi« 
la.r  expressions,  coulirm  the  lirst  solution. 

Alike.     "  They  are  alike  " ;  adj.     "  They  please  alike  " ;  adv. 
All ;  ADJ.       "  All  places."     "  All  this  "'    "  All  ye."     "  Ye  all." 
VHOS.     "  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole." 

"Wealth,  pleasure,  and  honors,  must  all  he  given  up." 
NOUN.  "  Our  little  all."  "  All  of  wiiich."  "  He  is  all  in  all." 
ADV.        "  I  nm  all  alone"  ;  i  e.,  u-hullg. 

"All  heart  they  live,  all  head,  all  eye,  all  ear."  --  M'dton. 
A  word  is  sometimes  so  used  that  it  has  not  the  meaning  of  one  part  of 
speech  only,  but  of  two  or  three;  and  if  we  may  borrow  a  beautiful  and 
expressive  term  from  the  flori^f,  we  would  say  that  a  word  so  used  is  a 
ruriegitled  part  of  speech.  All  is  sometimes  so  used,  and  especially  in  the 
list  cxamnlc  above.  In  tlie  sentence,  "  They  live  all  heart,"  all  modifies 
a(iver!)ia!!y  ne  ther  lire  nor  heart,  but  tlie  pndicate  lire  luait.     Note  \'1I. 

All  or  both,  when  it  limits  the  i)lurality  of  a  noun  or  pmnoun,  is  an  adjective  ;  when  it 
eiriphaticnUy  repeats  tlie  idea,  an  appositive.  Some  teachers  call  these  vvonis  udjectivea 
whenever  they  precede  the  Bubbtontivcs,  and  apix)sitives  wbeu  they  follow  them  j  but 


OBSERVATIONS.  211 


they  should  generally  be  considered  adjectives,  simply  when  they  are  joined  to  substan- 
tives or  can  he  joined  to  t)iem.  "This  is  all  that  is  done  "  ;  noun.  '*The  sheep  ar  -  all 
here"  ;  a(ij.  "The  sheep  are  alL  of  them  here  "  ;  pron.,  appositive.  "I  was  all  at- 
tentioi"  •,  adv.,  or  adj.  belonging  to  /.  "  It  is  all  one  to  me  "  ;  adv.  or  noun,  accor.ling 
to  the  sense  •,  one,  descriptive  adjective.  "  lie  is  all  right,"  i  e.,  in  all  respects  ;  aJv. 
For  all  in  all,  all  over,  all  along,  and  all  hollow,  are  generally  adverbial  phrases. 
Alas.     "  Alas  for  us  ! "     "  Fie  upon  your  law ! "  interj.  or  noun. 

Alan  is  rather  an  interjection,  and^c  a  noun.  "  Alas,  I  sigh  iot  us  !"  "/  say  lie 
upon  your  law  1 "    Compare  with,  "  To  bid  welcome." 

Alone ;  adv.    "  The  boy  studies  alone."    Manner  of  .studying. 
ADJ.      "  The  hoy  alone  studies."     "  Let  it  [be]  alone." 

Also.  "  lie  is  aho  blind  " ;  adv.  "  The  spring,  and  also  the  autumn,  has 
its  pleasures"  ;  coiij.  phr.     Or,  and,  conj.;  also,  adv.,  Note  VII. 

Antecedent*    The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  not  the  word  which  can 
be  put  in  place  of  the  pronoun,  but  the  word  elsewhere  used  in  refer- 
ence to  which  the  pronoun  was  chosen  as  u  substitute. 
Therefore,  when  a  pronoun  is  applied  directly  to  the  object  itself,  when  the  speaker  can 

not  be  thought  to  have  the  supposed  antecedent  in  his  mind,  and  when  the  supposed 

antecedent  does  not  first  present,  iu  the  order  of  the  sense,  the  object  meant,  Kule  IX 

should  not  be  applied. 

Any.  "Any  person  ";  adj.  "  Ani/  of  them  "  ;  pron.  or  adj.  •' Are  yoa 
any  better";  adverb,  analogous  to  the  adverb  7h«cA. 

Apposition.  "  Ye  men  of  Altorf."  " It  is  known  that  he  is  here"  Either 
term  can  be  considered  the  appositive ;  but  it  is  generally  better  to  con- 
sider the  pronoun  the  leading  or  principal  term,  and  the  other  the 
appositive.  "  So,  "  In  her  brother  Abmlom's  house."  Absalom's  is  the 
explanatory  and  appositive  word.  "  At  Smith's,  the  bookseller" ;  book- 
seller, appositive,  or  else  supply  who  is. 

.Opposition,  or  identijication  in  language,  is  a  much  more  comprehensive  idea  thaa 
Crrammars  represent  it  to  be.  It  reaches  not  only  substantives,  but  adjectives,  adverbs, 
phrases,  clauses,  and  other  parts.  (See  §526  ;  also  Both,  As,  and  Such.)  When  sub- 
stantives are  put  in  apposition,  they  must  agree  in  case.  But  sometimes,  in  accordance 
with  the  foregoing  comprehensive  idea  of  apposition,  a  substantive  is  put  in  apposition 
with  a  clause  or  an  ailjective  that  has  not  case  ;  and  then  the  substantive  is  in  the  nomi- 
native c.ise,  simply  h  cause  a  noun  naturally  prefers  the  nominative  case,  or  conies  into 
tlie  world  in  the  uomiaative  case,  wheu  there  id  nothing  to  make  it  vary  or  decline  fronx 
tliiscuse. 

As;  ADV.     "As  cold  as  ice";  degree.    Conjunctive  Adverb :  "Skate  as  I 
skate  "  ;  manner.    "  It  fell  as  I  entered  " ;  time.    And  prob- 
ably, "  As  cold  as  ice  "  ;  dei/ree. 
CX)NJ.   "As  [since]  we  all  must  die,  why  not  be  charitable  1  ** 
"  As  it  regards  this,  I  have  nothing  to  say." 
"  Such  characters  are  called  letters ;  as,  a,  b,  c,"  etc. 
"  Appoint  him  as  clerk  "  ;  him  and  clerk  are  in  apposition. 
PROX,  "  Let  such  as  hear,  take  heed  "  ;  i.  c,  those  who. 
PREP.  "  I  object  to  his  appointment  as  clerk." 
Here  it  seems  rather  better  to  call  as  a  preposition  than  to  say  that  his  and  cfr.rk  are 
in  apposition }   but  in  sentences  implying  comparison,  as  should  not  be  considered  a 
preposition. 

As  follows  and  as  appears  are  generally  best  parsed  as  adverbial  phrases. 


212  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

equivalent  to  thus  and  apparent!  1/ :  sometimes  the  pronoun  it  maybe  sup- 
plied.  In  parsing  as  rtyards  and  as  concerns,  it  is  probably  best  to  supply 
it.  As  yd,  adv.  phr. ;  as  if,  conj.  plir.  "  They,  as  well  as  I,  have  writ- 
ten "  ;  conj.  phr.  "  He  has  done  as  well  as  he  could " ;  first  as,  adv.  of 
degree,  modifying  the  adverb  well. 

"lie  concealed  his  good  luck  from  everybody,  as  is  usual  in  money  dreams  " ;  i.  e. 
as  it  is  usual  for  people  to  do,  etc.  As,  in  this  coiisituction,  is  partially  a  relative  pro- 
noun ;  because  which  could  be  substituted  for  it.  So,  "Then  the  dust  shall  return  to  the 
earth,  as  it  was."  "I  bought  «Mcyi  as  were  new,"  i.  c,  those  which  ;  identity;  as, 
relative.  "I  bought  such  as  you  have,"  i.  c,  asthose  are  which,  etc.  •,  similarity; 
OS,  rather  conjunction,  but  considered  a  relative,  to  avoid  troublesome  distinctions.  "They 
seek  out  some  particular  herb,  which  they  do  not  use  as  food  "  ;  food  is  in  apposition 
with  which.  So,  "The  wood  of  the  silver  fir  is  not  much  used  as  timber."  In  both 
these  sentences,  it  would  be  hardly  improper  to  call  as  a  preposition,  equivalent  to  for.  "  I 
consider  him  as  responsible"  ;  conj.  adv.  of  manner.  "  Be  so  kind  as  to  write  to  me  "  j 
conj.,  or  conj.  adv.  of  degree.  "  ^s  the  tree  falls,  so  it  lies."  Here  the  clause,  as  the 
tree  falls,  and  the  adverb  so,  can  both  be  regarded  as  modifying  lies ;  or  else  the  clause 
can  be  considered  a  moilifier  of  so,  by  being  related  to  it  as  a  noun  is  related  to  the  pro- 
noun with  wliich  it  is  put  in  apposition.  —  See  That. 

Asleep.     "  He  fell  asleep  " ;  adv.     "  I  found  him  asleep  " ;  adj.    Asleep  is 

strongly  drawn  into  the  analogy  of  awake  and  alive,  and  is  therefore 

generally  an  adjective. 

Auxiliary  Verbs.     Some  grammarians  parse  auxiliaries  as  independent 

verbs,  and  the  rest  of  the  verb  as  a  participle  or  an  infinitive. 

Ay.     "  Ay,  so  let  it  be  "  ;  adv.     "  The  ays  have  it " ;  noun. 

Before.     "  He  stood  before  me  "  ;  prep.     "  I  knew  him  before  " ;  adr. 

"  He  came  before  I  returned  " ;  conj.  adv.  —  See  After. 

Below.    "Fields  below  us";  prep.      "He  went  bdow" ;  adv.      "The 

shining  fields  below  " ;  adj.     "  From  bdow  " ;  noun.     So,  beneath, 

*'  From  the  supporting  myrtles  ivund,  [adj.,] 

They  snatched  her  instruments  of  sound."  —  Collins. 

By  supplying  words,  round  can  be  parsed  as  a  preposition  or  an  adverb.  But  the 
phrase  or  clause  will  still  be  an  adjective  el.iment  relating  to  myrtles;  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  same  analogy  of  syntax  should  he  allowed  to  run  through  word,  phrase,  and 
clause.  Considered  as  an  adjective,  round  is  not  a  descriptive  one ;  but  it  still  shows 
what  myrtles  are  meant,  and  this  specifying  sense  comes  within  the  province  of  local  de- 
finitive adjectives. 

Beside.     "  I  stood  beside  him  " ;  prep.     "  What  do  you  know  besides  "  ; 
adv.     "  To  all  beside  it  is  an  empty  shade,"  i  e.,  to  all  others.     "  O'er 
all  the  world  beside,"  i.  e.,  all  the  remaining  world ;  adj.,  or  else  adverb 
under  Note  VII,  analogous  to  also  and  too. 
Best ;  ADJ.     "  Do  what  is  best." 

ADV.     "  He  best  can  tell,"    "  Tones  he  loved  the  best "  ;  adv.  phr, 
NOUN,  "  To  do  one's  best."     "  Every  creature's  best." 
At  best  and  at  worst  are  generally  adjuncts  rather  than  adverbial  phrases. 
Better.     "I  could  have  better  [adv.]  spared  a  better  [adj.]  man." 

"  To  get  the  better  of"  ;  "  Take  her  for  better  or  worse  "  ;  noun. 
Blame.     "He  is  to  blame  "  —  to  be  blamed;  passive.  —  See  §  401. 
Blow.    "  To  blow  up,  out,  away,  off,  down,  hack,  in  ";  adverbs. 


OBSERVATIONS.  213 


Both  5  ADJ.     "  Both  men."    "  Both  these."    And  probaMy,  "  We  both." 
Both  and  all  are  about  as  much  drjinite  or  demonstrative  adjectives  as  they  ure  in- 
drjinitc  adjectives ;  though  they  are  uduaDy  classed  witli  the  indrjinite. 

ritox.  "  The  bee  and  the  butterfly  are  hath  busybodies." 
CONJ.   "  JShe  is  both  young  and  baudsouje." 
It  is  remarkable  that  both.,  as  a  representative  word,  can  relate  to  two  nouns,  or  two 
pr.jUDUiis,  or  two  adjectives,  or  two  adverbs,  or  two  i»rei)ositii>us.     At  bottom,  it  has  al- 
ways a  pronominal  or  adj-ctive  meaniusr,  or  implies  aiipoaitiou ;  but  it  is  usually  cou- 
siJered  a  conjunction  whenever  it  corresponds  to  and. 

Either  and  neither  are  used  as  both  is  used,  with  this  additional  peculiarity,  that, 
whea  they  are  correspjiuliug  coujuactions,  they  can  be  applied  to  more  Ihau  t>vu. 

Burden.     "  A  ship  of  two  thousand  tons  burden" ;  apposition. 
But;  coxj.  "  Sin  may  gratify,  t«^ repentance  stings." 

"  No  creature  is  so  helpless,  but  it  can  protect  itself." 
PEEP.    "  Wlience  all  but  him  had  fled  " ;  i.  e.,  except  him. 

"  None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee." 

"  What  rests  but  that  the  mortal  sentence  pass  ?  '* —  Milton. 

"  Man  but  for  [without]  this  were  active  to  no  end." 
ADV.  "  Words  are  but  leaves  "  ;  i.  c,  arc  onJif  leaves. 
Tt  is  worthy  of  notic?  that  the  second  conjunctive  sense  of  but.,  as  pivcn  above,  fa  snmc- 
TThat  prepositional,  for  it  suj(g:-s!.s  the  mtauing  of  except ;  and  that  mora  or  kss  of  thia 
meauiofr  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  the  difficuit  coi.?trucliotis  of  but.  "  I  cm  but  go"  =  I 
can  only  go.  "  I  can  not  biit  go  "  =  I  can  not  do  any  thing  except  to  go  =  I  must  go. 
It  is  probably  best  to  consider  but  in  the  latter  Fenteiici  a  modal  adverb,  e(|uivalent  to 
otherwise  <Aan,  and  modifying  the  assertion  (see  p.  177) ;  though  ditf.rent  from  but, 
o'llij.  which  is  an  adverb  of  extent  or  quantity.  So,  ''it  can  not  but  be  obvious  to  you, 
that  this  state  of  things  can  not  last." — A-  Lincoln.  '"Who  but  would  deem  their 
bosoms  burned  anew."  —  Byron.  That  is,  who  is  there.,  but  he  would,  etc.  By  thus 
Bujiplying  words,  but  becomes  a  conjuisctiou.  Sometimes,  however,  but  is  used  in  thia 
sense  where  words  can  not  be  thus  supplied  •,  and  it  \a  curiaii.ly  a  more  sensible  mode  of 
analysis  to  dispose  of  what  the  writer  actually  said,  than  of  what  wo  su|)pose  he  might 
have  s.iid.  IJesides,  the  quoted  sentence  h;i3  b.  ci.me  a  condensed,  idiomatic  form  of  ex- 
pression. "Who  hears  him,  but  [he  if^]  is  converted  by  huu  ?"  coiij.  la  the  sentence, 
"Should  none  be  left  but  he  and  /,"  sujiply  should  be  left,  and  parse  but  as  a  conjunc- 
tion. This  form  of  expnssion,  however,  is  obsolescent ;  but  biing  now  generally  ro- 
garded,  in  this  coustruction,  a  prcposiiioa,  aad  thcrcfurj  followed  I  y  the  objctuve  case. 

J2y,    "He  passed  ft//  me";  prep.     "He  passed  bj";   "He  lives  near 

ft//";  adv.     "  Bj/  the  bye,  there  is  a  liitle  debt  behind  ";  conj.  phrase. 
Cheap.     "  To  sell  cheap  goods  "  ;  adj.     "  To  sell  froods  cheap  "  ;  adv. 

The  second  cheap  is  used  f>r  the  adverbial  adjunct,  at  cheap  prices;  aud  it  shows 
the  manner  of  selli.ug.  —  See  Make. 

Case.  The  possessive  sign  was  originally  is  or  cs.  "  Kinfjis  crowne"; 
"  Christes  gospel."  —  Chaucer.  By  putting  an  apostrophe  in  place  of 
c  or  i,  a,  doul)le  advantage  was  gained,  —  the  possessive  sign  was  dis- 
tinguished from  the  plural  eign,  and  language  became  in  general  ono 
syllable  shorter. 

Close.  "  To  dose  the  eyes  "  ;  v.  "  At  the  close  of  the  day  "  ;  n.  "  A 
close  fit"  ;  "  To  lie  close"  ]  adj.  "  Sonic  dire  misfortune  lingers  close 
behind  "  ;  adj.  or  adv. 

CloAvn.     "  To  play  the  clown  "  ;  "  To  act  the  fool  " ;  nnm.  or  obj, 
Nominative,  if  the  meaning  is,  to  be  a  clown  ;  objective,  to  act  the  part  of. 

Come.    "  To  come  to  "  (revive).    It  is  probably  best  to  supply  l{fe. 


214  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Comparison.    Formerly,  adjectives  were  more  generally  compared  by  er 

and  est  liian  at  present.     In  Miiton  we  tiud  btaatif idlest ,  virtuousvst,  etc. 

Super/or,  inferior,  junior,  interior,  inner,  etc.,  are  adjectives  in  which  the 

idea  of  comparison  is  also  a  part  of  the  fundamental  meaning;  and  they 

are  therefore  partly  in  the  comparative  degree,  and  partly  in  the  positive. 

Hence  they  generally  require  lo  after  tliem  where  pure  comparatives  would 

require  than;  and  occasionally  some  of  them  may  even  be  compared;  as, 

"  This  is  still  niore  inferior  to  the  oiher."  —  Sicift. 

Daggers.     "To  look  or  speak  tlKjrjers"  i.  e.,Jlercenesf!,  threats;  n.  obj. 

Dear.     "  He  sells  dear,"  i.  e.,  at  dear  prices  ;  adv.,  used  for  adv.  adjunct. 

"  To  pay  dear  for,"  i.  e.,  a  dear  price ;  adv.,  used  for  ohjective  plira^e. 

Dispense.   "  I  can  dispense  with  luxuries  " ;  "  He  disposed  q/'his  property." 

"  Luxuries  are  dispensed  with  "  ;  "  The  property  ivas  disftostd  of." 

Here  it  seems  necessary  to  parse  the  verb  and  the  preposition  as  one  vtrb,  a  compound 
Tcrb  5  for  the  words  lose  tlieir  meaumg  wlieu  tiiey  are  separated.  —  See  §  386. 

Do.  "  This  does  awai/  with  [removes]  my  objections "  ;  probably  best 
parsed  as  a  compound  verb,  for  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  is  lost  when 
the  words  are  separated.  "  He  has  directions  what  lo  do."  To  do  de- 
pends on  directions,  and  governs  what.  "I  have  more  than  I  know 
what  to  do  with  "  =  I  have  more  than  that  is  with  which  I  know  what 
to  do.  To  do,  with  the  remaining  words  of  its  phrase,  is  the  object  of 
knoiv  (Note  IV)  ;  and  what  is  used  as  tlic  object  of  to  do,  §  203.  "I 
am  done  for"  ;  v.,  passive.  "  I  am  done,"  i.  e.,  I  have  finished  my  work; 
passive  in  form,  but  active  in  sense.  Do,  thus  used,  is  an  excellent 
specimen  of  what  would  be  called,  in  Latin  grammars,  a  deponent  verb. 

Draw.    "  To  draw  up,  down,  on,  off,  out,  awaif,  over,  in,  hack  "  ;  adverbs^ 
"To  draw  near,  nigh,  close,  titjht'^ ;  adjectives. 

Drink.    "  To  drink  the  cup  dry  " ;  phrase,  object  of  drinlc. 
Say,  in  parsing  cup,  that  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  beinpr,  with  the  remainder  of  the 

phrase,  of  which  it  is  iho  cliitf  word,  the  object  of  the  verb  drinlc,  accordiu^j  to  Note  IV. 

Then  parse  dry  as  an  adjective. 

Each.    "  Each  man  "  ;  adj.     "  They  took  one  each,"  pron.,  Rule  VIL 

"They  help  each  other.''''  "They  help  one  another.''''  Here  each  can  be  parsed  as 
b^ing  in  apposition  with  they,  or  else  each  other  can  be  parsed  as  one  word  (see  §  20D). 
"  They  deemed  each  other  oracles  of  law."  —  Pope.  In  this  sentence,  oracles  can  not  be 
put  ill  apposition  with  either  each  or  other,  but  must  be  put  in  apposition  with  both  con-- 
Bidercd  as  one  expression.  It  is  true,  as  Mr.  Brown  says,  that  thj  Latin  alii  alios  proves 
th;it  the  words  should  be  parsed  separately  ;  but  it  is  just  as  true  that  the  Greek  tlU^jAwf 
and  the  Gerinan  einander  prove  that  they  should  be  parsed  together. 

II!lIipsis.    The  following  are  the  most  common  kinds  of  ellipsis :  — 

Article  :  "A  noun  or  [n\  pronoun."     "  The  first  and  [the]  last." 

Adjective  :  "  He  is  wiser  than  you  are"  [ivise]. 

Noun  :  "At  St.  Paul's  "  [Church].     "  Peter  the  Great "  [Emperor]. 

Pbonodn  :  "  Be  [ye]  seated."     "  Take  all  [that]  there  is." 

Vekb  :  "  To  whom  thus  Michael "  [spoke].     [Rise]  "  Up.  Glenarkin." 

"  And  [am]  I  to  be  a  corporal  in  his  field  ! "   "  Dark  [is]  the  day." 

"  Myself  [being]  a  refugee."     "  Let  me  [to  be]  alone."  [etc. 

"  With  here  and  there  a  pearl ";  i.  c,  with  a  pearl  ploccd  here, 


OBSERTATIONS.  215 

pREPOSinox:  "Bring  [to]  me  your  slate.'* 

Conjunction  :  "  Froud,  stern,  [and]  inflexible."    "I  believe  [that]  he  is 

PuuASii :  "  Few  are  more  resolute  tluin  he  "  [is  resolute].  [at  home." 

"  O  [how  much  I  wisli]  that  those  lips  had  language !  " 
Clause  :  "  Ue  returned  ;  I  know  not  why  "  [he  rcturntd\. 

The  words  most  commonly  omitted  are  those  little  ones  which  help  to 
make  syntax  rather  than  to  express  thought. 

Else.    "Any  one  else,"  L  r,.,  any  other  one;  adj.     Else  usually  follows 
the  word  wliich  it  modifies.     "  How  else  \othericise]  can  I  do  it  ?  "  adr. 
"  He  has  not  returned  yet,  else  [or]  he  would  write  "  ;   conj. 
Enough.    "  Good  cnuuyh  " ;  adv.     "  Money  enough  "  ;   adj.    "  To  have 

enough  " ;  noun. 
Even.  *'  Thy  charms  taught  even  toil  to  please."  "  T,  even  I,  was  there." 
It  is  customary  to  call  even,  in  the  first  of  these  sentences,  an  adverb  ;  and  in  the  sec- 
ond, a  ooijjuuctioii.  but  it  has  the  same  meaniuj;  in  both  ;  and  it  plainly  relates,  in  the 
first,  to  the  object,  and  in  the  SfCund  to  the  appositive.  (Note  VII.)  It  is  belter  to  say 
that  such  a  word  relates  to  the  subject,  the  object,  the  preilicate,  or  some  other  syntactical 
eL'mcut,  than  to  say  that  it  relates  to  a  noun  or  prououa  ;  for  it  affects  the  syutiu,  or  the 
train  of  thought,  rather  than  describes  an  object. 

lu  the  syntax  of  all  lan^uagf s  are  used  certain  little  words  that  are  promissory  or  re- 
iterative ;  or  that  are  desijitied  to  pro.luce  some  identifying,  intensifyinx,  ampliiyiug,  or 
attenuating  eflect  upon  the  flo^v  of  thought  or  the  train  oi  ideas  Taese  little  words  are 
generally  adverbial  or  cjiyuuctive  iu  sense ,  but  sometimes  they  dety  classidcation. 

Every.    "  Everii  one  "  ;  adj.   "  Each  and  everij  of  them  " ;  pron.,  obsolete. 
"Eveiy  now  and  then  "  ;  adv.  phr,    Or  call  noio  and  then  nouns  ;  Rule 
Fair.    "  To  bid  /a<>  "  ;  i.  e.,  to  be  fair  in  appearance,  hence  adj.  [VI. 

Fall.  "  We/e//  out,  —  my  wife  and  I."—  Tennyson.     "  To  fait  foul  of." 

Fall  out  does  not  have  the  meanina:  of  fall  and  out ;  for  it  means  to  quarrrf,  and 
therefore  the  whole  phras.'  should  probably  be  parsed  Jis  a  compound  verb.     (See  §  386.) 

Far.  "  A /ar  country  "  ;  adj.  "Faraway";  "  Far  up  the  hill  "  ;  adv., 
modifying  the  word  or  phrase  which  follows  it.  "  He  went  thus  \  fur  "  ; 
advs.  "  From  ^ar  "  ;  "  Thus  far  is  right "  ;  noun.  "  He  went  as  far 
as  Richmond,  i.  e.',  to  Richmond,  not,  as  far  as  Richmond  is;  prep. 

Farewell.  "  Famrell,  my  friends  !  "  interj.  "  A  long  farewell " ;  "  To 
bid  [s2i\\  firewell "  [to]  ;  noun.     "  A /f;r«ire// address"  ;  adj. 

Fast.  "  A  bug  fist "  ;  adj.  and  n.  "  To  fast  long  "  ;  v.  and  adv.  "  To 
walk /us< " ;  "  Fast  asleep  "  ;  adv.  "  To  tie  him /as<  "  ;  adj.  "  Siloa's 
brook  that  flowed  /<«<  l)y  the  oracle  of  God  "  ;  adv.,  showing  where. 

Few.     "  A/e«7  men  "  ;  "A  dozen  men  "  ;  "  A  thousand  men  "  ;  adj. 
"  A  few  of  us  ;  ''  The  few  and  the  mang  "  ;  "  Ttro  and  two  " ;  "  By  tetis  "  ;  n. 

J,  in  the  first  example,  belongs  to  the  rest  of  the  phrase  considered  as  denoting  but  one 
aggregate.    Strictly  speaking,  the  wo\\\%  few,  dmpn.  many,  thoasa>id,  etc,  are  varie- 
c/nCed  \ya.rta  of  sp-'ech,  —  p«rtly  noun  and  partly  adjective  ;  the  substantive  sense  allow- 
ing the  article  before  them,  an<l  the  adjective  sense  enabling  them  to  coalesce  adjectiyely 
with  th ;  nouns  after  them.     Sometimes  they  ai*e  nouns  ;  and  sometimes  it  is  best  to  make 
them  nouns  in  parsing,  by  supplying  of. 
Jf'cWf  and  some  words  lik-*  it.  though  usually  called  nouns,  are  very  nearly  pronouus. 
'*  Truths  would  you  teach,  or  save  a  sinking  land  ? 
All  fear,  none  aid  you,  and  few  undcrstaud."  —  Fopc. 


216  ENGLISH    GRAMilAR. 


First )  ADJ.    "  Olennra  ctime, first " ;  i.  «.,  was  first  in  coming. 

ADV.    "  To  write  ^iVx/,  ilien  KCiul"     "  At  (irst  "  ;  mi  v.  phrase. 

For.     *'  8end /or  liirn  "  ;  prep.     '•  1  Bciit,  /or  it  was  ncoessury  "  ;  conj. 
•'  Tiikcn  fur  granted  "  ;  i.  c,  for  a  t/iiitt/  jfnuited.    "  We  live  for  goml  or 
evil  "  ;  "  I  deem  it  [to  bej  for  youd  to  do  so  "  ;  "  Taken  for  perfect  "  ; 
rather,  adjiuuts, 

•'  For  him  to  speak  would  he  iiijudlrlous  "  _  To  spenk,  for  him,  would  he  Injudicious  j 
i.  <:.,  on  hiii  purl,  llut  il  to  .sj/iu/c  Li  rckncd  to  him,  thca  the  whole  pbruae  Uiuut  bo 
|)ui'ttL'd  an  u  uuun.  —  8ce  Above. 

Full.    "  Bring  it  full" ;  udj.    •'  Full  many  a  flower"  ;  adv. 

Gender  I  the  mcanimj  of  a  word  in  regard  to  sex.  A  word  can  mean  a 
male,  a  female,  either,  or  neither;  henee  there  can  bo  /ywrgenderH  while 
tlic're  are  but  two  sexes  ;  and  to  have  four  genders  is  a  great  conveni- 
ence in  speaking  of  words. 

Hall.    "  //"//,  horrors  !  "  intcrj.    "  Ho  bade  the  stranger  hail  " ;  noun. 

Half.    "  A  luitf  section  of  land  "  ;  adj.     •♦  Half  the  men,"  i.  e.,  half  of, 

etc.;  n.     "To  go  /i(iId('s  with";  n.,  Halo  VI.      "  yy«// dead  "  ;  adv. 

"  He  returns  /mlf  fiddler,  groom,  and  cook."  —  JfiutpiH,  ahridijed. 

Half,  in  the  last  H'lntonci-,  flcemH  to  ho  nn  ndvcrh,  modlfyinR  the  wliolir  of  the  followlnfT 
np|K).-iitiv(!  phniHc,  which  hits  the  dchcriptlve  force  of  an  ailjceiive  •,  Note  \  11.  If  piiracrt 
fiu  uu  adjective,  it  should  be  referred  to  ull  the  following  nouua  ua  one  whole. 

Hand.     "To  go  hand  in  liuud" ;  adv.  phr,  or  Kupply  beiriej. 

Hard.  "It  is  hard";  adj.  "To  study  hard";  atlv.  Observe  that 
hardlij  is  a  different  word.  *'  Hard  by  a  forest's  side";  adv.  of  place, 
mollifying  the  adjunct  after  it. 

Have.  "  I  have  to  let  a  house  "  ;  active,  depending  on  have.  "  I  have  a 
house  to  let";  passive,  depending  on  house.  (See  §-101.)  "Have  it 
done  to-day."  "The  witnesses  testified  that  they  saw  him  buried"; 
I.  C-,  they  saw  his  burial ;  or,  they  saw  that  he  was  buritd.  Done  is  proba- 
bly the  perfect  passive  participle  ;  but  buritd  is  rather  the  present  passivo 
infinitive,  to  be  being  understood. 
"  I  had  as  lief  not  bf,  as  be  the  thing  I  am."  —  Shak. 
"  lid  had  better //a(;e  taLen  cold  than  taken  our  umbrella." —  Mrs  Caudle. 
Had  ;  verb,  su'ijunctivt!  mood,  implyiuR  conciuwion  ;  j)ast  tcnae  in  form,  but,  lil<o  werr^ 

present  In  aense.    [Tu\  />c  ;  iidlnitive,  depending  ou  Aad.   Hct,  to /lai'c  taken.    §§410,482. 

High.     "  The  spacious  firmament  on  hii/h  "  ;  adjunct. 

"  'J'ho  day-spring  from  on  hiijh  "  ;  phr<'sc  used  as  a  noun,  Note  IV". 

"They  fired  too  soon,  and  too  hi(}h.''  ■  -  Bancroft.     Adv. 
How.    "  How  deep  "  ;  nilv.  of  degree.   "  I  know  not  how  to  do  it"  ;  conj. 

adv.    "  How  much  is  it  ?  "     "1  was  glad  to  tret  even  so  much." 
••  How,  In  the  phrafc  hnw  tn  do  it,  mo<lifl.R  to  do  ;  and  |oin8  the  phraBC  to  the  verb 
know.     To  do,  with  the  remsviiiintt  words  of  the  phrase  of  whicli  it  Is  the  chief  word,  is 
used  ns  the  object  of  know  ;  Note  IV. 

In  piirclnn  each  of  the  r  maininpt  exiimp'eH.  Bupply  n  noun  ;  or  it  is  ntill  better  to  parse 
nil  such  miSHd  construrtions  in  tliis  way  :  Ho  !■<  i»n  ndvi-rb  modifying  fiiur.h  ab  an  udjic- 
tivc  }  muc/i  is  un  ndjeciive  modllled  by  no  ;  iiud  it  la  alao  u  nouu,  the  object  of  to  get. 

However.  "  Howeocr  great  "j  adv.  "  Great,  however,  as  ho  is,"  etc. ;  conj. 


OBSERVATIONS.  217 


L    *'  Love  of  fame  makes  /  the  little  hero  of  each  tale  " ;  n.,  3d  p^  obj. 
**  When  Frog  took  possession  of  any  thing,  it  was  always  said  to  bo 
foi  us  ;  and  wliy  may  not  John  Bull  be  us,  as  well  as  Nic.  Frog  was 
ys  ?  "  —  iSivift.     The  first  us  is  a  pronoun ;  but  the  others  are  nouns,  in 
the  3d  person,  and  nominative  case. 

"  Said  I  to  myself,  and  myself  said  to  me, 
*  Take  cai-e  of  thyself;  for  none  care  for  thee.'  " 
Separate  mi/se/f  in  parsing ;  se//)  —  noun,  3d  pers. ;  thi/self,  pron. 
"  Poor,  guiltless  /.'  and  can  I  choose  but  smile?  "     Kule  II. 
**  Me  miserable  ! "  i.  e.,  woe  is  to  me.    "  Ah  me  J  "    "  Oh  me  !  " 
The  supplied  words  are  not  satisfactory.    la  truth,  notwithstanding  what  grammars 
teach,  there  is  in  the  English  language  au  exclamatory  objective  independent  as  well  as 
an  exclamatory  nominative  independent ;  the  former  being  used  when  the  speaker  is  in 
a  passive  or  suffering  coaditiou,  aud  the  latter  iu  other  cases^ 

111.    "  To  fare  ill "  ;  adv.    "  He  was  taken  ill,"  i.  e.,  became  sick;  adj. 
Impersonal.    An  inappropriate  word,  for  the  verbs  have  person.    Uniper- 

sonal  is  also  inappropriate,  for  all  verbs  not  applicable  to  persons  must 

be  unipersortal.     Unsubjective  would  be  a  better  expression. 
Infinitives.  "  The  infinitive  is  no  mode  at  all."  —Pro/:  Gibbs  of  Yale  Cot. 

"  The  infinitive  has  no  claim  to  be  considered  a  mood."  —  Barnard. 

*'  The  infinitives."  —  Dr.  Whalely.  **  The  participials."  —  G.  P.  Marsh. 
Dr.  "Whalely  calls  both  the  infinitive  and  the  participle  ivfnitivex  ;  because  both  are 
rot  finite,  or  have  not  person  and  number.  Mr.  Marsh  calls  both  participials ;  be- 
cause they  have  the  meaning  of  verbs,  and  also  partake  of  the  nature  of  other  parts  of 
speech.  But  neither  calls  either  of  these  forms  of  the  verb  a  mood.  We  might  add  much 
tiigumcnt  and  authority  in  favor  of  our  classiSoation,  as  given  on  p.  119  •,  but  we  have 
mn.  room.  Every  act  or  state  must  belong  to  some  p^-rson  or  thing  ;  and,  in  the  parsing- 
of  participles  and  finite  verbs,  this  fact  is  made  the  basis  of  the  Rule.  Therefore  it  seems. 
to  us  not  altogether  proper  to  disregard  this  truth  wholly  in  parsing  the  infinitive  5  but 
most  teachers  prefer  such  a  Uule  as  we  have  given  oa  p.  195.  Were  we  teaching, 
hoivever,  we  should  prefer  the  following  Rule  :  — 

Kdlb  XII.  —  An  Infinitive  relates  to  an  expressed  or  indefinite  subject^  and 
generally  depends  on  some  other  word. 

"  lie  was  anxious  to  return."  To  return  relates  to  Ac,  and  depends  on  anxious,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XII.  "  The  wagons  were  so  arranged  as  to  protect  the  camp."  To  pro- 
tect relates  to  ivaijons,  aud  depends  on  as.  "Here  was  au  opportunity  to  grow  rich." 
7'o  grow  relates  to  au  indefinite  subject,  and  depends  on  opportunity.  The  subject  of 
an  infinitive  is  the  nouu  or  pronoun  denoting  the  object  to  which  the  act  or  state  belongs  ; 
ind  such  a  subject  may  be  in  the  objective  case,  as  well  as  in  the  nominative.  But  our 
iangua;,'e  does  not,  like  the  Latin,  allow  a  Rule  for  the  subject  of  the  infinitive,  as  being 
put  in  the  objective  case  because  the  infinitive  depends  on  it ;  for  such  an  object,  in  Eng- 
lish, has  always  a  verb  or  preposition  before  it  by  which  it  is  governed. 

Iji  Older.  "  We  were  now  obliged  to  gallop,  in  order  to  reach  the  boat." 
In  order  Is  not  so  much  an  adjunct  that  modifies  the  verb  before  it,  as  it  is  an  adverbial 
phrase  that  modifies  the  infinitive  after  it,  by  strengthening  the  idea  of  purpose.  In  fact, 
while  to  is  the  common  sign  of  the  infinitive,  in  order  to  is  the  formal  or  strengthened 
sigM,  which  is  generally  preferred  when  the  infinitive  is  considerably  rt-moved  from  the 
verb  ou  which  it  depends,  or  wuen  it  depends  on  another  infinitive  immediately  before  it. 

Inversion.    The  following  are  the  principal  kinds  of  inversion  :  — 
Rhetorically  arranged:  "  My  native  shore  with  sighs  and  tears  I  leave.** 
Grammatically  arranged:  I  leave  my  native  shore  with  sighs  and  tears. 


218  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 


Logical  or  grammatical  arrangement  is  that  which  the  sense  requires  in  parsing. 
lilietorical  arran-jemr.nt  is  some  deviation  from  grammatical  arraiigemeDt,  for  the  saL« 
of  rhythm  or  effect. 

"  Through  glades  and  glooms  the  mingled  measure  stole." 

The  mingled  measure  btole  through  glades  and  glooms. 
"  Mute  was  his  tongue,  and  upright  stood  his  hair," 

His  tongue  was  mute,  and  his  hair  stood  upright. 
**  0  Time  !  than  gold  more  precious  " ;  i.  e.,  more  precious  than  gold. 
"  Oh,  what  a  situation  I  am  placed  in ! "  i.  e.,  in  what  a  situation,  etc. 
"  Wlien  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed." 
When  first  thy  sire  designed  to  send  Virtue,  his  darling  child,  on  earth- 
Irregular  Verbs,  in  the  course  of  time,  sometimes  become  regular ;  but 
regular  verbs  never  become  irregular,  except  that  ed  is  sometimes 
changed  to  /. 

In  old  writers  and  in  poets,  we  sometimes  find  loaden,  molten,  and 
hounden,  used  for  the  participles  loiidtd,  melted,  and  bound;  also  clombt 
for  climbed :  rid,  for  rode;  Iieat,  for  heated;  and  writ,  for  wrote  or  icritten. 
It,     "  It  was  I  "  =  That  person  was  I.     Almost  demonstrative. 
"  It  is  easy  to  do  so  "  =  This  thing,  to  do  so,  is  easy. 
"  It  is  12  o'clock  "  =  The  time  is  twelve  o'clock. 
"  It  rains."     "  It  thunders."     See  ^  465  and  184. 
**  Come,  and  trip  it,  as  you  go,  on  the  light,  fantastic  toe."  —  Milton, 
It  here  vaguely  denotes  doing  or  action. 
Known.    "  Some  men  employ  their  time  —  an  ugly  trich  — 

In  making  known  how  oft  they  have  been  sick." —  Cowpcr. 

Trick ;  nonn,  nom.  case,  in  apposition  with  the  clrmse  before  it.  (See  Jjipo.^ition.) 
[To  be]  known  is  a  passive  infiuitive,  depending  on  the  clause  that  follows  it,  which  ia 
uied  as  a  noun. 

Large.    "  To  go  at  large,'*  adv.  phr.     "  The  statutes  at  large  " ;  adjunct. 
Late.    "  He  is  late  " ;  adj.     "  He  came  late  " ;  adv.  or  adj.     "  He  worked 
late " ;  adv.     "  He  came  latdif  "  ;  adv.     ( See  Short. )     "Of  late  "  ;  n. 
Perhaps  better  :  Late  is  an  adiective  relating  to  he  ,-  and  an  adverb,  modifying  came. 
(He  was^ate  in  coming.)    So,  "  He  worked  late  "  •,  i.  c,  to  a  late  hour. 

Lay.    "  To  lay  waste  " ;  Rule  VI.     "  He  was  laid  hold  of  " ;  vorh. 

Let-    "Letojrf,  let  q^,  let  on,  let  in,  let  cfo?m  " ;  adverbs,  modlfvin^  c:on- 
erally  some  verb  understood,  as  go  or  come,  "  Let  loose  "  =  Let  it  be 
or  go  loose ;  adj.     "  Let  go  "  ;  verb,  depending  on  it  and  let. 
Let  is  essentially  the  auxiliary  verb  which  serves  to  express  the  imp'^rative  mood  in 

the  first  or  tliird  person.     It  is  unlike  other  auxiliaries,  however,  in  heinsr  transitive  ;  and 

therefore  it  prevents  the  intervening  substantive,  by  governing  it  in  tlie  objective  case, 

from  becoming  the  subject. 

Lilie.    Adv.  or  adj.,  ^  .'531.    " I  like  this "  ;  v.    "I  never  saw  the  like " ;  n. 

"John  began  to  chuckle  and  laugh,  till  he  was  like  to  burst  bis  sides.'* 

—  Swift.     "  He  bad  like  to  have  knocked  John's  hat  into  the  fire."  — 

Id      "  I  had  like  to  have  fillen."  —  Cowper. 

Dr.  Worcester  calls  like  here  a  noun  ;  and  several  passacres  in  Gulliver's  Travels  giv« 

plausibility  to  this  disposal  of  the  word :  but  it  seems  to  us  that  like  is  rather  on  adverlk 


OBSERVATIONS.  219 


In  all  these  cases,  and  modifies  the  following  infinitive,  which  depends  on  the  preceding 
wai  or  had-     ^*LiLc  enoujih  "  is  an  obsolescent  exprtssion  for  likely  enoutjk. 

"  The  Assyriiiu  came  down  like  the  wolt  on  the  fold."  There  is  u  peculiarity  in  this 
sentence.  On  an  not  i)tf  parsed  without  supplyinj;  a  verb.  Wlien  a  tiiiite  verb,  liowever, 
is  supplied,  like  becomes  a  conjunctive  adverb  ;  but  at  the  same  tune  it  ceases  to  he  proper, 
aud  luurt  give  place  to  as.    Supply  coniimj  after  wolf,  aud  you  avoid  the  dilDcuhy. 

Little.     *'  LilUa  better";  adv.    "A  Uttie  better";  noun,  Rule  VI. 

Long.     **  I  louy  for  rest  "  ;  v.    "  A  long  rest "  ;  adj.    "  To  rest  long  "  •  adv. 

Look.     "  To  look  big"  i.  e.,  with  insolence;  adv.,  manner  of  looking. 

Loose.     "  To  break  hose,"  i.  e.,  become  suddenly  loose;  adj.  —  See  Let. 

Loud.     "  A  loud  noise  "  ;  adj.     "  To  talk  loud  "  ;  adv. 

Low.     "To  he  low";   "To  sink /ow";  adj.     "  To  lie /oiw";  adj.,  some- 
times adv.     "To  aim  loio" ;  "To  speak  low" ;  "  To  sell  low"  ;  adv. 
■When  the  lowncss  is  in  the  subject,  low  is  an  adj. ;  when  in  tlie  verb,  an  adv. 

Make.  "To  make  bold  with";  "To  make  free  w'wh"  \  i.e.,  to  be  bold 
with,  etc  ;  adj.  "To  make  sure  of,"  /.  e.,  to  make  one's  self  sure  of, 
or,  to  make  [a]  sure  [thing]  of;  adj.  "  To  make  away  with  "  ;  adv.,  or 
compound  verb.  "  To  make  much  of" ;  n.  "  IIu  was  made  much  of"  ; 
compoimd  passive  verb,  §  400.  "  By  selling  all,  he  will  make  out  to  pay 
liis  debts  ";  compound  verb.  "To  make  tight  of"  i.  e.,  a  light  matter 
of,  —  to  regard  lightlg;  adv. 
Perhaps  better  :  Bold  is  an  adjective,  feinting  to  the  suhject ;  and  it  is  also  a  noun,  the 

object  of  make.    Lijht  is  an  adjective,  relating  to  some  noun  understood  j  and  it  is  also 

a  noun,  the  object  of  make.    So,  '-To  pay  dear."  —  See  Dear. 

Methinks.     "  M<  thinks  I  see  a  noble  and  puissant  nation."  —  Milton. 

Methinhs  is  a  defictive  irregular  verb,  of  the  indie,  mood,  pres.  tense,  3d  pers.,  and 
f .  n.  5  but  used  without  a  subject.  Or  else  say,  Methinks  is  an  anomalous  expression, 
used,  by  the  figure  ena'lagc,  for  /  think. 

Thinks  is  used  in  the  sense  of  seems  ;  an  old  meaning  still  retained  in  this  expression, 
though  not  generally  understood  so.   "  \Vher»it  thinks  best  unto  your  royal  self." — Shak. 

Mistake.  "  I  teas  mistaken  for  my  brother  "  ;  passive  verb.  "  I  thought  I 
saw  you  ;  but  I  was  mistaken."     Deponent  verb ;  see  Do. 

Slood.  If  our  excluding  the  infinitive  and  the  participle  from  moods 
be  approved,  then  we  would  offer  the  following  definition  of  mood  in 
preference  to  tlie  one  given  on  p.  131  :  Mofjd  is  that  prof)erty  of  verbs 
wliich  shows  liow  the  act  or  state  is  predicated  or  regarded  with  refer- 
ence to  its  suiiject. 

more.  "  il/ore  work  ";  adj.  "il/ore  entertaining";  adv.  "  To  get  more  ";  n. 
"  Say  no  more  " ;  no,  adj. ;  more,  noun.  "  Your  parents  are  no  more  " ; 
"  I  will  not  do  so  any  more,"  i.  e.,  again;  adv.  phr.  [adv.  phr. 

"  He  becomes  more  and  more  angry  " ;  adv.  phr.  —  See  Again. 
"  The  more  we  urged  him,  the  more  he  resisted  "  ;  adv.  phr. 
Parse  the  more  first  as  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  apply  Rule  XIII ;  then  say  that  it  is 

used  also  as  a  correlative  connective,  relating  to  the  more  of  the  other  clause,  and  help- 
ing it  to  unite  the  two  clauses  according  to  Rule  XV. 

Much.  "  Much  money"  ;  adj.  "  To  liave  muck  "  ;  n.  "  He  reads  much  "  ; 
n.  or  adv.   "  He  sleeps  much " ;  adv.   "Much  the  stronger  " ;  n.,  Rule  VI. 

Must  sometimes  belongs  to  the  past  or  the  past-perfect  tense  of  the  po- 
tential mood,  as  well  as  to  the  present  tense  or  the  perfect.  "I  knew  ho 
viust  rise."  — Byron.    "  But  for  this,  the  ship  imist  have  sunk."  — Arnot. 


220  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Names.    " lie  called  me  names."    Rule  VI.  [it"';  n. 

Nay.    "Ay///,  do  not  weep";   adv.     "To  ^ajnat/";    "The  nat/s  have 
Nay  find  yea  are  siimetimes  nserl  as  ntnp'.ifiers,  t)  indicate  na  emphatic  addition  of 
Eoinotliiug  muiv.     Whe  i  tlius  Uicd,  it  is  geucrally  best  to  call  them  conjunctions. 

Near.  Near  is  generally  considered  an  adjective;  thou'^^h  it  has  some- 
times partly  the  imturc  of  a  preposition,  and  sometimes  partly  that  of 
an  adverb.  It  is  not  called  a  preposition,  because  it  can  be  compared, 
and  sometimes  has  to  aftci*  it;  and  it  is  not  called  an  adverb,  because  it 
has  the  adverb  near!//. 

No.  '•  No  place  " ;  adj.  "  No  farther  "  ;  adv.  "  No,  never  1 "  indepen- 
dent adverb,  Note  VIII. 

None.  '"'None  sorrowed  more";  pron.  "None  the  better";  Rnle  VI. 
''  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none  " ;  adj.,  belonging  to  silver  andtjo/tl,  §  1 83. 

Nouns.    A  noun  nitiy  denote  a  person,  as  man ;   a  spiritual  being,  as 
anifel;  an  animal  inferior  to  man,  as  doj ;  a  thing,  as  house;  a  place, 
as  IJoston;  time,  as  dn/;  a  quality,  as  fjooduess ;  action,  as  tod,  etc. 
Collective  nouns  do  not  include  such  words  a^  jewdrij,  furniture,  etc. 
Complex  Nouns.  —  Some  grammarians  call  such  words  as  John  Smithy 

Charles  XII,  and  Dahe  of  Wellington,  complex  nouns. 
Moet  of  the  older  prammarinns  teach  that  each  word  of  such  a  name  should  be  parsed  ; 

a'ld  eoma  i.f  tli'  m  say  ih  u  John,  of  the  name  John  Smith,  is  ai  .I'ljective,  because  it 

bIdws  what  Smith  is  niea;it  •,  while  oth"rs  insist  as  strenuously  that  Smith  is  i;i  app'»i- 

tio^i  with  John,  because  it  show^  what  John  id  meant  1    It  is  probably  best  to  parse  tho 

vliule  uamo  as  one  noun. 

Concrete  Nouns,  the  names  of  objects  wi;h  their  qualities  ;  as,  snow. 
Abstract  Nouns,  the  names  of  qualities  without  their  objects ;  as,  trhiteness. 
Diminutive  Nouns,  the  names  of  small  objects  as  distinguiahed  from  iajgc 

ones  of  the  same  kind;  as,  hdlodc'fi'om  hill, 
material  Nouns,  the  names  of  substance  in  mass  ;  as,  vxiter. 
Nouns,  Pioptr  and  Common.  —  The  8ame  word  is  sometimes  a  proper  and 

somciimes  a  common  noun.    "  The  phinets  are  Mercury,  Venus,  Earthy* 

etc.    "  The  sun  shines  upon  the  earth."    "  iSundai/  precedes  Monday  "  ; 

""  Preaching  on  every  Sundaij.'" 
It  is  not  necessary,  and  perhaps  hardly  pr.ip^r,  to  apply  the  distinctfon  of  proper  and 
common,  to  p  irticiples,  infinitives,  or  clause-*,  that  are  used  as  nouns  ;  but  gender,  per- 
son, and  number,  siiould  be  mentioned,  on  account  of  the  relations  which  sucli  expressions 
have  to  pronouns  and  verbSf 

Now.  "  Nou}  is  the  time  to  repent"  ;  adv.  "AW  is  the  time  to  repent 
in";  n.  " Aow  Barabbas  was  a  robber "  ;  conjunction,  implying  tran- 
sition.    "  Nouj  —  novo  " ;  advs.,  nnd  also  correlative  connectives. 

Number.  Ln  was  a  plural  termination  in  the  Saxon  laniruage ;  hence  we 
liave  orcn,  children,  and  even  kine  is  a  contraction  of  cowen,  and  the 
poetic  cj/ne  (eyes)  of  ei/en.  In  old  writers,  we  also  find  verbs  with  this 
plural  ending.  (See  p.  .58.)  Formerly,  nouns  had  the  endintr  ie  in 
stead  of  y ;  as,  "  A  gentle  Ladie."  —  S/nmser.  Hence,  according  to 
some  writers,  the  change  of  ij  to  ie  in  the  plural ;  as.  ladies. 

OfT.  Adv.  or  prep.  "He  is  well  off,""  i.  e.,  rich;  adj.  "  0/f  with  his 
Lead ! "  imper.  adv. ;  Note  VIII,  for  no  suitable  verb  can  be  supplied. 


OBSERVATIONS.  22l 


Old.    "  Old  men  " ;  adj.    "  Days  of  old  " ;  "  The  young  and  the  (Ad  " ;  n. 
Once.    'M/  once  came  forth  whatever  creeps";  adv.  phr.     "Now,  jast 

this  oncc^  we  mast  go  on  the  same  as  ever"  ;  noun.  Rule  VI. 
Only.    **  The  onlij  man  "  j  adj.     "  I  propose  my  thoughts  only  as  conjec- 
tures "  5  adv.,  relating  to  the  appositive  phrase,  as  conjectures.    See  §  527. 
Opposed.     "  I  am  opposed  to  this  " ;  deponent  verb.  —  Sec  Mistake. 
OurS)  yours,  Iters,  etc.,  are  either  personal  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case,  or 
else  adjective  pronouns  of  the  third  person  and  in  the  nominative  or  the 
objective  case. 
These  words  occupy  a  middle  position  between  personal  pronoung  and  adjective  pro- 
nouns.    Oum,  for  instance,  may  be  equivalent  to  our  books ;  and  hence  it  may  be  re- 
garded either  as  having  the  gender,  parson,  number,  and  case  of  our,  or  as  having  the 
Render,  person,  number,  and  case  of  books.    The  former  view  is  the  one  generally  taken 
in  English  grammars  ;  but  the  latter  is  strongly  sustained  by  the  analogy  of  some  foreign 
languages.   In  the  English  language,  relative  pronouns  are  used  to  suit  either  part  of  thfs 
composite  word  5  and  this  is  rather  a  conclusive  argument  that  the  words  should  be  parseil 
as  we  have  shown  on  p.  74.     "  A  weary  life  is  theirs,  who  have  no  work  to  do."    ""My 
umbrella  being  torn,  1  will  take  your.t,  which  ia  better." 

"'T  was  thine  to  Kad  our  warrior  bands"  ;  i.  e.,  thy  rart.  But  In  parsing  the  phrase, 
"This  poor  self  of  mino,"  for  instance,  why  may  we  not  simply  say  that  the  adjtctive  ad- 
junct of  mine  is  used  as  a  definitive  adjective  belonging  to  self?  —  See  p  93. 

Out.    "  To  put  out ;  to  branch  out ;  to  break  out ;  to  draw  out ;  to  run  out; 

to  cutoM<;  to  make  out;  to  look  out;  to  play  out,"  etc. ;  adverbs. 
Over.     "  We  passed  over  the  bridge  "  ;  prep.     '*  Over  against  the  church 
stands  a  hospital " ;  prep.    "  We  passed  of^e;- " ;  "  I  turned  over  a  leaf"  ; 
"It  ran  over" ;  "  It  is  over,"  i.  e.,  gone  over;  "  There  were  twenty  dol- 
lars ovair,"  i.  c,  in  excess  ;  adv.     "  Over  and  above"  ;  adv.  phr. 
Participial  Adjectives.  —  A  participial  adjective  is  derived  from  a  verb, 
has  little  or  no  reference  to  time,  and  generally  precedes  the  noun  which 
it  qualifies,  and  which  would  be  the  subject  if  the  participle  were  a 
finite  verb. 
The  following  are  also  participial  adjectives  •  "  God's  presence  is  rennving,  sanctify- 
ing, and  lightening  to  the  soul."  —  Bunyan.     "The  office  was  unsolicited  and  un- 
desired  by  me."  —  McCulloch.    "Boughs  unshaken  by  the  wind.'*  —  Bryant      As  a 
tjeneral  rule,  preli.Kes  do  not  change  the  part  of  speech  ;  and  suffixes  do.     When  un  is 
prefixed  to  a  participle,  but  can  not  be  prefi.xed  to  the  verb,  some  grammarians  call  the 
word  thus  formed  an  adjective;  others,  a  participle.     It  seems  to  us  that  such  words 
should  be  called  participial  adjectives.    The  word  undesired,  for  instance,  as  given 
above,  can  not  make  a  passive  verb  with  was,  and  therefore  it  is  not  a  pure  participle  ; 
but  it  takes  after  it  the  preposition  by,  as  required  by  participles,  and  not  to,  as  required 
by  adjectives,  and  therefore  it  ia  not  strictly  an  adjective. 

Such  words  as  talented,  double-barreled,  unepitaphed,  etc.,  yrhlch  are  formed  from 
nouns,  and  take  the  ending  ed  simply  to  give  them  something  of  an  adjective  form,  are 
adjectives.     Also  such  words  as  parsing,  in  the  phrase  parsing  exercises. 

Compound  participles,  as  treated  in  this  book,  are  to  simple  participles,  somewhat  a« 
compound  pronouns  are  to  simple  pronouns. 

Participial  Nouns.  "Whenever  a  participle  is  used  with  a  verb  or  prep- 
osition in  such  a  way  that  it  assumes  case,  it  may  be  called  a  participial 
noun  ;  and  it  may  then  have  the  modifiers  of  either  a  verb  or  a  noun, 
but  not  always  a  part  of  each  class. 

A  participial  noun  that  has  the  modifiers  of  a  verb,  should  be  parsed 
first  as  a  participle  and  then  as  a  noun.  —  See  p.  20G. 

PeaS)  number  j  pease,  quantity ;  —  a  frivolous  and  pedantic  distinction. 


222  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Pleonasm.  "  It  curled  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze."  —  Scott. 
"  My  iMtnJcs  thoy  are  furnished  with  bees."  —  Slienstone. 
II  Seems  to  us  that  it  would  be  better  to  apply  to  such  examples  the  Rule  for  npimsition 
than  the  Rule  for  nominatives  iiid  pt'ndeiu  :  for,  in  jjeneral,  no  extraoriiinary  principle 
should  hi  applied  where  an  ordinary  one  will  ilo  as  well  ;  and  the  exami)les  are  analo- 
gous to  such  as  "  Ye  mountains,"  "  I  mysi-lf."  in  which  the  pronoun  merely  strengthens 
the  expression.  But  when  the  words  are  plaiidy  differeut  in  case,  or  wheu  the  mode  of 
expression  is  different,  Rule  II  may  be  preferable. 

Possessive.   "  As  Eden's  garden  bird."  —  Halleck.  *'  Houghton's  JTIsop's 

Fat)les."     "  The  Duke  of  Wellington's  forces."    "  Jones  the  saddler's 

wife."     "  At  her  brother  Absalom's  house."    "  Turner  and  Mason's 

store."    "  Turner's  and  Mason's  store." 

Edfn's  is  governed  by  garden,  and  Edpn''s  garden  is  an  adjective  belorging  to  bird. 

Houyhton''s  is  governed  by  the  phrase  ^.iop\t  Fables.    Duke,  Jones,  and  brother, 

■  liould  be  considered  the  possessive  wonla  on  which  the  names  of  the  possessed  objects 

dopend.     Turner  is  governed  by  store  expressed;  and  Turner''s,  by  store  under- 

Btood.  —  See  Ours. 

Post.  "  He  rides  post " ;  adv. ;  or  noun,  under  Rule  VI  or  VII,  accord- 
ing to  the  sense. 

*'  He  is  the  post,  and  rides  "  ;  or,  "  lie  rides  like  the  post,  or  by  post."  The  sentence 
seems  to  be  analogous  to  '•  She  walks  a  queen  "  ;  "  He  struts  a  dandij  "  ;  and,  jf  so,  tho 
same  Rule  should  be  applied  to  it,  though  most  teachers  call  post  simply  an  adverb. 

Prithee.    "  I  prithee  "  =  I  pray  thee.     "  Prithee^  say  no  more  " ;  inter). 

Put.     "  To  put  up  with  it " ;  i.  e.,  to  hear.     "  To  put  up  at  an  hotel." 
Probably  each  phrase  should  be  parsed  as  a  compound  verb. 

Pronouns.  Pronouns  were  probably  the  first  of  names,  and  after\\'ards 
adopted  as  general  substitutes  for  nouns ;  hence  pronouns  sometimes 
have  no  antecedents. 

Adjective  Pronouns.  —  By  supplying  suitable  nouns  after  them,  most  ad- 
jective pronouns  can  be  parsed  as  adjectives ;  and  those  few  which  can 
not,  might  be  parsed  as  personal  pronouns,  for  they  are  always  of  the 
third  person.  Since  pronouns  represent  nouns  with  their  modifications, 
most  adjective  pronouns  represent  themselves,  and  the  nouns  understood. 

Responswe  or  Indirect  Interrorjative  Pronouns.  "  W/io  he  was,  is  the  ques- 
tion." Here  no  antecedent  can  be  supplied  before  who;  nor  is  tcho  a 
direct  interrogative.  Such  a  pronoun  resembles  a  relative  pronoun, 
because  it  makes  its  clause  dependent;  and  it  resembles  also  an  adjec- 
tive pronoun,  because  it  is  equivalent  to  the  same  phrase,  and  implies 
uncertainty.  Some  grammarians  call  such  pronouns  indefinite.  Some- 
times an  antecedent  can  be  supplied,  and  the  pronoun  can  then  bo 
parsed  a.s  a  relative. 

Quite.    "  She  is  quite  a  beauty."    "  He  is  almost  a  poet." 

Quite  and  almost  are  adverbs,  modifying  the  predicates.    Note  VII. 

Rig^ht.     "  Our  rights  "  ;  n.    "  It  is  right  "  ;  adj.    "  All  is  going  on  rigU  "  ; 

adj.,  §534.      "You  did  right,"  i.  e...  what  is  right;   adj.  or  n.     (See 

Make.)     *' Right  Ueverend  " ;    "  72/(//if  noble  prince  ";  adv.      "  llight 

away  "  ;  "  Right  oflT"  ;  adv.  phr. 

Rule  VI.  —  Noum  that  signifj  tvhich  way,  how  far,  how  much,  how  long, 


OBSERVATIONS.  223 


or  time  when,  are  sometimes  put  in  the  objective  case,  without  a  prep- 
osition crprcf^Md 
"We  insert  this  Rule  here,  Vcanse  some  teachers  may  prefer  it  to  Rule  VI,  on  p,  192  ; 
though  we  ourselves  prefer  that  lUle,  which  is  more  comprehensive. 

Rule  VII. —  1.  A  Noun  or  Pronoun,  added  to  auotlicr  for  explanation  or 

emphasis,  is  put,  bi/  apposition,  in  the  smne  case. 

2-  A   Noun  or  Pronoun,  offer  an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb,  is  put  in 

the  same  case  as  the  subject,  when  it  denotes  the  saute  person  or  thing. 

"We  insert  this  Role  here,  because  some  teachers  may  prefer  it  to  Rule  VII,  on  p.  192  j 

though  we  ourselves  prefer  that  Rule. 

Run.    "  To  run  riot " ;  i.  e.,  in  or  into  riot.    Rule  VI. 
"  The  brooks  ran  nectar.^*     "  The  streams  ran  blood." 
"Forthwith  on  all  sides  to  his  aid  was  run 
By  angels  many  and  strong."  —  Milton. 
11 19  customary  to  say  that  ran  is  transitive,  and  poverns  nectar  and  fjfood ;  but  the 
meaninj;  in  the  first  example  i)lainly  seems  to  be,  that  the  bmoks  teem  nectar,  and  hence 
nectar  is  a  predicate-nominative.   The  next  example  is  doubtful ;  ft.r  it  may  mean  simply 
that  the  rivers  carried  bio  >d,  or  flowed  with  blood  ;  and  if  this  is  the  sense,  Rule  IV  or 
\l  should  be  applied     la  the  last  example,  was  rnn  is  on  impersonal  verb,  aud  a  puro 
Latin!  sm.  —  S^e  p.  195. 

Save  and  but  are  prepositions  when  followed  by  the  objective  case,  and 
conjunctions  when  followed  by  the  nominative  case.  —  Sec  p.  293. 

Seize.    "  To  seize  something."     "  To  seize  on  something  "  ;  comp.  v. 

Set.    "  To  set  up,  off",  out,  apart,  bi/,  forth,  over,"  etc. ;  adverbs. 

Short.  "  To  be  s/.o;f  of  money ";  adj.  " To  stop  sAort" ;  adv.  "To 
come  short  of"  ;  "  To  fall  shoH  of"  ;  i.  e.,  to  be  short  of;  adj.  "  He 
cut  him  short  with  this  remark";  adv.  "To  stop  short"  (manner), 
and  "  To  stop  shortli/"  (time),  are  very  different. 

Sit.  "  To  sit  up  late  "  ;  v.  intr.  "  I  sit  me  down  "  (poetic) ;  v.  tr.  "  To 
sit  the  matter  out  "  ;  v.  tr.  "  She  sits  a  horse  well  " ;  "  He  plods  his 
weary  way."  On  may  be  supplied  in  the  last  two  examples,  but  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  idiomatic  sense  makes  the  verbs  transitive. 

Situated.     "  London  is  situated  on  the  Thames  " ;  adj. 

So.  "  So  frowned  the  combatants  "  ;  adv.  of  manner.  "  Tl  is  so  cold  *' ; 
adv.  of  degree.  "  .So  he  does  it,  no  matter  when  "  ;  conj.  *'  A  wry 
mouth  or  .so  was  all."  —  Swtft.  Noun.  So  is  often  used  as  a  sort  of 
pro-word,  to  represent  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause ;  and  to  express  not 
only  manner,  but  frequently  condition,  thus  having  the  force  of  an  ad- 
jective ;  but  as  it  must  be  always  construed  with  a  verb,  it  is  still  con- 
sidered an  adverb.     "  He  is  very  stinrp/,  but  she  is  more  so." 

Somethinpr.     "  Of  worm  or  serpent  kind  it  something  looked."    Rule  VII. 

Such.      '-Such  and  such  a  one."  —  Swijl     Adj.     "I  do  not  regard  his 
rules  as  such,"  i.e.,  as  rules;  pron.,  apposition.     *•  Some  flowers  have 
beautiful  names  ;  such  as  hearVs-ease,  daisif,  honeysuckle,"  etc. 
Such,  in  this  last  sentence,  is  a  pronoun,  in  apposition  with  names,  as  being  included 

In  it ;  and  as  is  a  relative  pronoun,  predicated  of  hcart^s-ease,  etc.,  by  the  verb  are 

understood.    Such  could  also  be  referred  iojiowers. 

Take.    "  To  take  hold  of;  to  take  care  of;  to  take  up  ;  to  take  on  " 


224  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


"He  takes  ajlcr  liis  father"  ;  i.  «.,  resembles.    *'  We  should  not  take  up 
-     tt'iV/i  mere  probabilities."  —  Watts,    Tliat  is, — should  not  adopt.  "  Tliey 

took  to  the  woods  "  ;  i.  e.,  took  themselves. 
Take  is  sometimes  used  in  such  close  combination  with  its  modifiers,  that  the  words 
can  not  be  piir3e(i  with  any  j)erc>.'ption  of  their  sjparatc  u.eaniugs.    lu  such  cases  the 
whole  phrase  may  be  treated  as  a  compound  verb.  —  See  §  386. 
Than.     "  He  is  wiser  than  I "  [am] ;  conj.,  connecting  clauses.    "  Who 

forgets  the  more  than  Homer  of"  his  age "? "  conj.,  connecting  words. 

"  Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan  except,  none  higher  sat."  —  Milton. 
Than  whom  is  an  inelegant  expression;  though  it  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the 
abridged  phrase  but  me.,  but  him.  Than,  in  the  foregoing  example,  is  usually  considered 
a  preposition.  It  may  also  be  parsed  as  a  conjunction,  by  saying  that  whom  is  used  for 
who,  by  the  figure  enallagi.  "  I  have  more  trouble  than  I  can  bear  "  ;  i.  e.,  than  that 
is  which  I  can  bear."  This  construction  of  than  is  so  nearly  like  that  of  the  relative  o.?, 
that  it  almost  makes  than  a  relative  or  else  as  a  conjunction  :  "  I  have  as  many  as  he  "  ; 
"  1  have  more  than  he."  "  Tiiis  aunt  Deborah  had  no  more  than  a  small  life  annuity." 
Here  annuity  is  put  in  apposition  with  more,  being  included  in  it ;  for  the  meaning  is 
not  that  she  had  no  more  than  a  small  life  annuity  is,  but  that  she  actually  had  the  small 
annuity  ;  the  idea  of  identity  pi'edomi nates  over  that  of  comparison.  As  sometimes 
connects  words  in  app<»3ition,  and  than  is  a  similar  word  •,  besides,  tkan,  as  used  above, 
would  became  as,  if  translated  into  German. 

That;  ADJ.  "J7<af  man."  [hood." 

ADJ.  PROX.  "  No  other  home  seems  so  lovely  as  that  of  my  chiUl- 
REL.  ruox.  "It  was  he  that  assisted  me."  [ing-" 

CON'J.  "I  believe  that  all  sickness  is  caused  by  improper  liv- 

•♦Here  is  love,  \n  that  while  we  were  yet Christ  died  for  us."  —  Bunyan.     In 

governs  the  whole  clause  after  it ;  or  else,  only  that,  with  which  the  clause  after  it  is  put 
in  apposition.  "A  few,  that  is,  eight  or  ten,  were  saved";  conj  ,  or  supply  nwrn^rr. 
"  Fool  that  I  was,  no  one  knew  it"  =  A/though  I  was  plain fi/  the  great  foul  that  I  was, 
no  one  knew  it.  By  thus  supplying  words,  this  dilficult  idiom  can  be  parsed  ;  but  the 
suppliei!  words  hardly  preserve  tlie  sense.  —  So,  "Young  as  he  is,  few  are  his  eciuals." 
Or  ube  treat  the  sentences  as  if  that  and  as  were  though. 

The.    "  The  man'' ;  article.     "  The  more  we  have,  the  more  we  want"; 

article.    *' The  deeper,  the  cooler";  adv.,  and  correlative  connective. 

"  The  better  to  converse";    adv.  phr.    "He  did  the  best";   adv,  phr. 

When  the  relates  to  a  noun,  it  is  an  article ;  to  an  adjective,  an  adverb  ; 

to  an  adverb,  it  forms  with  it  an  adverbial  phrase. 
Then  J  adv.     "  Did  you  hear  it  thunder  then  ?  " 

CONJ.   "  If  you  think  so,  then  do  not  purchase." 
There.    See  p.  177.  "  The  ride  there  and  bark  was  delightful " ;  adj.,  show- 
ing what  ride.     "To  the  liouse  thereof";   "And  the  fame  hereof'^; 

"Time  when^' ;  **  The  place  tt'Aere " ;  "  All  things  M'An/sofi'cr";  adj. 
Till.    "  Stay  <///  to  morrow";   prep.     "  Stay /<//  I  return " ;   conj.  adv. 

"Till  now";  "  Till  then";  adv.  phr.;  better,  adjuncts. 
Times.     "  Three  times  the  son's  age  is  equal  to  the  father's."    "  Five 

times  four  are  twenty."    "  Five  times  one  are  five." 
There  is  an  inconsistency  in  the  foregoing  modes  of  expression.    Custom,  however, 
seems  determined  to  uphold  them  all.    To  parse  them  as  they  are,  apply  Rule  VI  to 
times  in  the  first  example,  and  to  four  and  one  in  the  others.    The  son's  age,  taken 
three  times,  etc.    Five  times  of  four,  as  to  four,  or  in  regard  to  four,  etc. 

To  U  a  preposition ;  also  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  and  a  part  of  it. 

Since  the  infinitive  was  not  intended  for  predication,  it  needed  not  an  auxiliary  verb 
for  its  sign  ;  and  therefore  it  adopted  to  as  being  best  suited  to  express  the  general  idea 
of  tendency. 


OBSERVATIONS.  225 


Too*    "Too  small";  adv.  of  deforce.      "Since  he  went,  I  will  go  too, 
"Devotion,  too,  hatli  linj;:cred  round  each  spot  of  consecrated  ground." 

Too,  in  the  last  two  examjiles,  is  rsither  conjunctive  ;  and,  in  the  last  one,  its  construc- 
tion is  so  nearly  like  that  or  tlie  conjunction  however,  tiiat  it  would  be  hardly  iini)ni|)er 
to  call  it  simply  a  conjunction.  Ton,  also,  likewiite,  even,  besides,  etc.,  t^enerally  re- 
late to  a  part  of  a  sentence,  and  at  the  same  time  refer  it  back  conjunctively  to  a  similar 
part  that  is  either  expr^-ssed  or  implied.  T<)  those  who  wish  to  be  critically  nice  in  par«- 
inj;  these  words,  we  would  sny,  first  parse  the  word  as  an  adverb,  relating  to  some  part  of 
the  sentence  according  to  Note  VII  ;  and  then  say,  that  it  is  also  used  as  a  coujuuction, 
couneciing  this  part  to,  etc.,  according  to  Rule  XV.  —  See  p.  177  and  §  527. 

Up.    "To  march  up  a  hill";  prep.    "To  rise  up;  keep  vp ;  go  up"; 

adv.     "  Man's  life  is  full  of  ups  and  downs" ;  nouns. 
Upwards.    "  Upwards  of  twenty  houses  were  burned." 
'^  About  twenty  houses  were  burned." 
"  In  a  sermon  there  may  be  from  three  to  six  heads.'* 
The  whole  phrase,  in  the  first  and  the  la'<t  example,  can  be  parsed  as  a  noun  ;  or  sup- 
ply the  words  number  and  heads.    Some  grammarians  call  upwards  a  noun  ;  and  a 
etrangeone  it  is.    Since  a^ow<  is  an  adveri>,  m(Klifyin^'  twrntij,  it  seems  to  us  that  it  would 
be  allowable  to  call  upwards  ofixw  adverbial  phrase  modifying  twtnty.  — See  Above. 

"Very.    •*  The  very  man  "  ;  adj.     "  Very  strange"  ;  adv. 
Weigh.    "  To  weifii  [lift]  anchor"  ;  v.  tr.     '•  It  weighs  a  pound'' ;  "Rule 
IV  or  VI.     "  To  weigh  a  horj  "  ;  Rule  IV.     Weiijh  is  as  much  transi- 
tive as  co<it ;  but  the  more  obvious  object  of  weiyh  has  rather  pushed  th© 
other  under  Rule  VI. 
Well.    ••  A  deep  icell" ;  notm.     "  Tie  is  tcell " ;  adj.     "  Well  advanced  ia 

years  "  ;  adv.     "  Well,  I  don't  know  what  to  do  "  ;  independent  adv. 
What ;  Compound  relative  pronoun.     ''  Take  what  I  offer." 
Interrogative  pronoun.     "  What  ails  you  ?  " 
Responsive  pronoun.     "  I  know  what  ails  you." 
Adjertive.     "  What  news  from  Genoa  ?  "  [I  succeeded." 

Adverb.  "  What  [somewhat]  with  entreaty,  tchat  with  threatening, 
Interjection.  "  What  !  take  my  money,  and  my  life  too  ?  " 
The  regular  expression  for  the  relative  what  seems  to  have  been  that  what; 
for  the  first  cousin  to  this  expression,  ''das  ivas,'^  is  still  alive  in  the  Ger- 
man language.  The  disagreeable  monotony  of  sound,  in  the  two  words  thai 
ichat,  seems  to  have  caused  the  rejection  of  one.  "  Esehcwe  that  evil  is."  — 
Goicer.  Here  the  what  is  dropped  ;  but,  in  the  course  of  time,  what  gained 
the  supremacy,  and  now  rules  in  place  of  both  words.  Gradually,  what 
also  assumed  the  funciion  of  a  plural. 

"  He  demands  as  a  favor  wknt  the  former  requires  as  a  debt."  What  Is  the  object  of 
demands  ami  rrqiiires  ;  and  favor  and  debt  are  put  in  a|)position.  "  Whatsoever  you 
find,  take  it."  Pleonastic  ;  tile  antecedent  of  whatsoiver  is  in  apposition  with  it.  "To 
others  do  —  the  law  is  not  severe  —  what  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  l)e  done."  The  ante- 
cedent part  of  what  is  governed  by  do,  and  wishes  governs  the  relative  part  in  connec- 
tion with  the  infinitive.  "  Is  it  possible  that  he  should  know  what  he  is,  and  be  what  ha 
is  ?  "  Know  governs  the  clause  after  it ;  and  what  in  responsive,  agreeing  in  case  with 
he,  according  to  Rule  VII.  "  I  tell  thee  whut,  corporal  5  I  could  tear  her."  That  is.  I 
tell  thee  what  I  think  or  feel.  What  if  he  should  sue  you  ?  "  /.  «.,  what  would  you 
do  ?  "  What  if  there  is  an  old  dormant  law.  nobody  will  enforce  it  "  ;  i.  e  ,  what  anails 
it.  "  What  thouyh  no  real  voice  nor  sound,"  etc.  ;  conj.  phr.,  for  it  seems  to  have  be- 
come a  sort  of  p(H!tic  although.  "  What  ho  !  warder"  ;  interj  "  For  all  men  whalso- 
ever" ;  adj. ;  or  supply  they  are,  and  apply  Rule  VII.  —  See  There  and  Do. 


226  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


When.  "TF7/en  was  it  ?  "  interrog.  adv.  '*  Come  when  you  can  "  ;  conj.  adr. 

*'  Since  ivken  was  it?"  noun.  So,  where. 
Though  it  is  customary  to  teach  that  relative  pronouns  an.l  conjunctive  adverbs  connect 
clauses,  .v;:"t  most  words  of  this  kind  allow  the  clauses  to  wliicii  they  belong  to  be  cou- 
tnictfd  inio  inflnitive  plir^ses  5  and  tlien  the  chit-f  t-ynUix  rests  sonutimes  on  tliu  r.:lative 
wnrl,  and  sometimes  on  the  infinitive.  "7  know  how  to  do  i<"  ;  Note  IV  ;  tu  do  is 
rather  the  oliject  of  know,  and  modified  by  hotv.  So,  "  I  knew  not  wkick  to  ckooae  "  ; 
"1  know  what  to  do."  "These  precious  minstrels  could  find  no  r;)oni  in  vjhic/i  to 
warble  " ;  "  He  has  no  money  witk  wliirh  to  beyin  the  business  "  ;  the  infinitives 
rather  depend  on  the  precedinjj  nouns  or  predicates,  and  the  adjuncts  on  the  infinitives. 
•'Tell  me  when  to  come,  and  where  to  meet  you  "  ;  Note  IV,  but  the  infinitive  rather 
dcpetids  on  the  adverb.  S3,  "  The  S;m  of  man  hath  not  where  to  la:/  his  head."  In  the 
list  two  sentences,  the  nouns  time  and  place  can  be  supplied  ;  aud  in  the  last  oae  it 
would  be  hardly  improper  to  parsd  where  simply  as  a  uoua. 
Whereby,  wherewith,  whereon,  whence,  imply  each  a  relative  pronoun ;  and 

thoy  arc  therefore  generally  conjunctive  adverbs. 
V/hich.     "The  table  on  which  I  write";    rel.  pron.     ^'Which  is  be?'* 

interrog.  pron.     "  Which  book  ?  "  adj.     " I  know  not  which  it  is  " ;  "I 

know  not  which  to  cboose^' ;  responsive  pronoim. 
"  Can  you  tell  lohtch  is  which-  f  "  "  lie  does  not  know  what  Is  vhnt  ?  "  *'  "We  shall 
Boon  see  who  is  who."  This  idiom  is  a  very  curious  knarl  in  langua;:e.  The  first  word 
eeems  to  be  a  common  interroj^ative  or  responsive  pronoun,  and  the  subject  of  th  ;  verb  j 
the  wijrd  after  the  verb  is  a  kind  of  indefinite  pronoun,  altogether  peculiar.  "  Which  is 
which  ?  "  seems  to  be  equivalent  to  "  Which  is  the  riyht  one  "  / 

"  Has  earth  a  clod  its  Mak'  r  meant  should  not   be  trod  by  man,  erect  and  free  ? " 
Supjjly  which,  aud  make  meant  govern  the  whole  clatLse,  which  should  not  be  trod,"  etc. 

Who.  "The  man  who"  ;  rel.  pron.  "  Who  can  tell  who  he  is?"  first 
tcho,  interrog.  pron. ;  second  who,  responsive,  or  indirect  interrogative. 
"To  any  one  whomsoever";  rel.  pron.,  in  apposition;  analogous  to 
"  The  man  himself" —  See  end  of  What.  [adv. 

Why.     "  Whi/gol"  interrog.  adv.     "The  reason  whj  ho  went";  conj. 

Wit.     "  They  are,  to  wit,'''  etc.  ;  adv.  phr.  "  These  men,  lowit,'^  etc. ;  conj. 

Worse.    "  To  be  iforse";  adj.    *•  To  do  jywrse " ;  adv.  "  For  toorse  ";  noun. 

Would.  "  I  would  go  "  ;  auxiliary  verb.  "  I  would  I  were  out  of  the 
difficulty";  prin.  v.  "  Would  God  it  were  done!"  prin.  v. ;  God, 
subject.  The  meaning  seems  to  be,  "  0  that  God  wished  [subjunctive] 
it  done!"  implying  that  it  would  then  be  instantly  done.  But  it  is 
customary  to  supply  /,  and  to  govern  God  by  to. 

Worth.  "  Slow  rises  worth  by  'poverty  depressed  "  ;  noun.  "  My  knife 
is  worth  a  dollar,"  i.  c.,  equal  tn  value  to;  adj.;  dollar.  Rule  Vf. 
"More  worth  to  men,  more  joi/ous  to  themselves."  —  Young.  "Woe 
worth  the  day  "  ;  verb  ;  old  imperative  of  the  verb  be ;  akin  to  were,  or 
derived  from  this  branch. 
Enjrlish  syntax  would  sustain  a  Uuh  of  this  kind  :  "Tcrbs,  adj-^ctives,  and  advprbs, 

that  have  absorbed  the  mcaniii;?  of  to  or  for,  miy  govern  the  same  case."    Like.,  wortk, 

and  virbs  of  giving,  would  come  under  this  llulc. 

Yet ;  CONJ.    "  Yet,  though  destruction  sweep  these  lovely  plains, 

ADV.         Rise,  fellow  men,  our  country  yet  remains  !  "  —  Campbell. 
"  Yet  a  few  daya,  and  thee  the  a11->>eholdinEr  sun  shall  see  no  more." —  Unj/int.    One 
writer  pup'pli'-s/wwm!/  ;  but  the  expression  is  fully  in  the  i  liom  of  thefJerman  I  inffua?!.' ; 
an  1  in  this  thr  sense  is,  '•  After  a  few  days  yet,"  eic,  i/et  being  an  adverb  that  modiUea 
the  phrase.     Yet,  Note  VII  ;  !/ear.<i.  Rule  VI. 

Yonder.     "  Yonder  church  "  ;  adj.     "  He  lives  i/onder  " ;  adv. 


PART   IV. 

"WORDS   IL.OGHCA.L3L.Y   COIMBIlSrED. 


ANALYSIS  OF   SENTENCES. 

••A.  migh-ty  inaze  !   bxit  not  witliont  a  plan." 

Analysis  is  the  resolving  of  a  whole  into  its  parts. 
Synthesis  is  the  combining  of  parts  into  a  whole. 

571  •  Analysis,  in  grammar,  is  the  resolving  of  a  sen- 
tence into  its  principal  and  subordinate  parts. 

Analysis  is  simply  graded  syntax ;  and  the  most  important  principal  parts 
Are  subjects  and  predicates.  Analysis  treats  of  thou<;ht  and  its  elements ; 
■parsing  treats  of  words  and  of  those  properties  which  sometimes  cause 
changes  in  the  forms  of  words. 

572.  Parsing  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into  its 

parts  of  speech,  and  mentioning   their   properties  and 

syntax. 

DISCOURSE. 

573.  Discourse  is  any  train  of  thought  embodied  in 
language  ;  and  it  may  be,  — 

1.  Description,  which  depends  chiefly  on  place. 

Description  is  an  account  of  persons,  pUaces,  and  things. 

2.  Narration^  which  depends  chiefly  on  time. 

Narration  is  a  rehearsal  of  events. 

3.  Science  or  Philosophy,  which  aims  to  unfold  the 
nature  or  plan  of  thinfjs. 

On  this  (livision  is  based  didactic  literature,  which  inculcates  moral  truth, 

4.  Illustration,  which  is  any  foreign  matter  introduced 
for  the  sake  of  making  the  speaker's  meaning  more  intel- 
ligible or  impressive. 

Wuxtration  is  generally  rhetorical  oiatter,  comprised  under  the  bead  of  Rhetorical 


228  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Any  one  of  tbe  first  three  kin3s  may  predominate  in  a  piece  of 
composition ;  but  the  four  arc  frequently  combined  and  mixed. 

57 i»  Discourse,  or  Literature,  is  usually  divided  into 
prose  and  poetry, 

575.  The  chief  divisions  of  prose  arc  science,  philoso- 
phy, historj^  travels,  novels,  essays,  addresses,  critiques, 
and  letters. 

576.  The  chief  divisions  of  poetry  are  epic  poetry, 
dramatic  poetry,  lyric  poetry,  satires,  epistles,  epigrams, 
and  epitaphs. 

Dramatic  poetry  is  divided  into  tragedies  and  comedies ; 
and  lyric  poetry  is  divided  into  odes,  songs,  and  sonnets. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

577.  The  division  of  his  discourse  into  volumes,  books, 
parts,  cantos,  verses,  chapters,  sections,  paragraphs,  and 
sentences,  is  left  chiefly  to  every  ^vrIter*s  own  taste  and 
judgment. 

578.  All  discourse  can  usually  be  divided  into  para- 
graphs. 

It  is  generally  more  convenient  to  divide  poetry  into  stanzas. 

579.  A  Paragraph  is  a  sentence,  or  a  combination  of 
sentences,  distinguished  by  a  break  and  a  new  beginning ; 
and  it  should  comprise  all  that  relates  to  a  distinct  part  of 
the  subject.  It  may  also  serve  to  make  prominent  an  im- 
portant thought,  or  to  give  a  needed  rest. 

Most  writers  seem  to  know  but  little  of  the  nice  uses  of  the  para^aph  ;  and 
they  abuse  it  even  more  than  they  abuse  capital  letters  and  pnnctuation- 
niarlts.     That  acute  writer,  Dean  Swift,  must  have  well  understood  the  em- 
phasizing force  of  the  paragraph  and  the  dash,  when  ho  wroic,  — 
"  All  modern  trash  is 
Set  forth  with  numerous  breaks  and  daska,''^ 

580.  All  paragraphs  can  be  divided  into  sentences. 


ANALYSIS.  229 

SENTENCES. 

581.  A  Ssntszice  is  a  thought  expressed  by  a  proposi- 
tion, or  a  union  of  propositions,  followed  by  a  full  pause. 

Sometimes  a  sentence  co::si3ts  merely  of  a  word  or  phrase,  tha';  is  equivalent,  however, 
to  i\  ])i-()poiition  ;  its,  '•  And  still  her  firmer  selt  lay  Ihcrj,  u-.iaUered  i:\  change.  Yes.  The 
oU  iirssHi  \vul  smile  I  oa  tliat  sanu  B-.v.-et  f  ic\"  etc.  —  Dickers  ( jn  Iho  Death  of  littlo 
1^2\\).  S  )me  imea.  th-ajh  verv  sel  l^m,  a  omplece  sentence  reaches  beyond  a  full  pause. 
(See  a  piece  called  "The  fo.given  Debt,"  by  L.  M.  Sargent.) 

582.  A  Proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with   its 
predicate. 

583.  A  Clause  is  a  proposition  that  makes  but  a  part 
of  a  sentence. 

Ex.  —  "  The  morning  was  pure  and  sunny,  |  the  fields  were  white 
with  daisies,  |  and  bees  hummed  about  every  bank."  —  Irving. 
The  foregoing  expression  is  a  sentence,  consisting  of  three  clauses. 

584.  A  clause  or  sentence  is,  — 

1.  Declarative^  when  it  expresses  a  declaration, 
Ex.  —  John  rides  that  wild  horse. 

2.  Interrogative,  when  it  asks  a  question. 
Ex.  —  Does  John  ride  that  wild  horse  ? 

3.  Imperative,  when  it  expresses  command,  entreaty, 
or  permission. 

Ex. — John,  ride  that  wild  horse. 

4.  UxclamatorT/y  when  it  expresses  an  exclamation. 

Ex.  —  Does  John  ride  that  wild  horse  ! 

An  cxclnmatory  clause  or  sentence  is  simply  a  declarative,  nn  interrosatire, 
or  an  imperative  one,  uttered  chiefly  to  express  the  emotion  of  the  speakeiv 

585.  Any  of  the  foregoing  modes  of  predicating  may 
be  either  afjirmative  or  negative, 

58G.  Sometimes  a  sentence  is  a  composite  of  clauses 
difrercntly  predicated. 

Ex.  —  "  The  earth  is  green  again; 

But  where  are  they  who  strove  upon  this  field  ?  ** 
This  Is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  a  declarative  and  an  interrogative  clause. 


230  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

587.  Sentences  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  simple, 
complex^  and  compouyid. 

Before  we  expliiin  these  classes,  it  will  be  necessary  to  show  the  chief  rela^ 
tioiis  of  words  iii  seiitcuces,  and  lo  iiiveitigate  tlie  eiemeuts  of  sentences. 

THE    THREE    RELATIONS. 

588.  Almost  the  whole  of  what  is  usually  called  Anal- 
ysis, is  based  simply  on  three  common  relations  of  syntax, 
generalized  and  extended. 

589.  These  are  the  predicate  relation,  the  adjective 
relation,  and  the  adverbial  relation. 

Predicate  Relation. 

1.  Trees  |  grow. 
2.  Young  trees  |  grow  rapidly. 
3.  The  young  trees  along  the  river  |  have  grown  rapidly  this  year. 
Observe  that  the  relation  between  trees  and  grow^  in  the  first  ex- 
ample, is  the  common  syntax  relation  between  nominative  and  verb. 
In  analysis,  we  simply  extend  this  relation  over  the  entire  phrase,  so  as 
to  take  in  the  ichole  sense.  Hence,  while  trees  remains  the  nominative 
in  parsing,  in  analysis  we  make  trees,  young  trees,  and  the  young  trees 
along  the  ricer,  respectively  the  subjects.  So,  while  grow  remains  the 
verb  in  parsing,  in  analysis  we  make  grow,  grow  rapidly,  have  grown 
rapidly  this  year,  respectively  the  predicates.  "^  . 

Adjective  Relation.  Adverbial  Relation* 

Black  HORSES.  They  build  wonderfally. 

T/iese   HOUSES.  They  kuild  sli/ps. 

The      HORSES.  They  kuild  noio. 

John's  HORSES.  Thoy  build  everj/whcre. 

Horses,  the  properti/  of  John.  They  build  concealed. 

IToRSES  owned hij  John.  They  build  to  he  remembered. 

IIoRSES  to  he  sold.  They  build  in  (jreat  splendor. 

Horses  of  strength  and  speed.  They  build  while  lahor  is  rhrap. 

Horses  of  which  he  housts.  They  build  that  theijrnaijhace  homes. 

Horses  that  have  heen  rode.  Thoy  build  because  theif  are  rich. 
Observe  that  not  merely  the  adjectives  black  and  these  tell  what 
or  which  horses  are  meant,  but  that  also  the  article  the,  the  possessive 


ANALYSIS.  231 

John's,  the  appositlve,  the  participle,  the  infinitrve,  the  adjunct,  and 
the  relative  clause,  —  indeed,  all  the  different  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  joined  to  horses,  —  tell  what  or  which  horses  are  "meant.  The 
adjective  sense  is  thus  extended  over  kindred  meanings  and  over 
phrases  and  clauses. 

Observe  that  the  adverb  wonderfully^  and  the  olject  ship^  which 
limit  huild^  though  in  very  different  ways,  still  both  show  what  kind 
of  building  is  meant ;  namely,  wonderful  building  and  ship-build  in  rj. 

Observe  also  that  all  the  different  words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  joined 
to  build,  show  how,  when,  where,  why,  or  as  to  what  the  building  is 
done,  —  that  is,  they  are  used  in  the  sense  of  adverbs ;  and  the  ad- 
verbial sense  is  thus  extended  over  kindred  meanings  and  over 
phrases  and  clauses.  * 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES. 

5dQL  The  Elcinsnts  of  sentences  arc  words,  phrases, 
itnd  clauses. 

591.  All  sentences  can  be  resolved  into  propositions  or 
clauses. 

592.  Sometimes  a  sentence  has,  besides,  an  indepen- 
dent word  or  phrase. 

Ex.  —  No,  gentlemen  of  the  jury  ;  this  is  not  law. 

593.  All  the  foregoing  parts  of  sentences  can  be  divided 
into  six  classes  of  elements  :  — 

Two  Principal  Parts,  or  Elements. 
Two  Modifiers,  or  Modifying  Elements. 
A  Connecting  Element,  or  Connectives. 
An  Independent  Element. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

594.  Every  proposition  must  have  at  least  two  princi- 
pal parts ;  a  suhject-nominative  and  a  predicate-verb. 


232  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

595.  The  Subject-Nominative  is  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
or  an  equivalent  expression,  that  is  the  nominative  to  the 
verb. 

5dii»  The  Predicate -Verb  is  the  finite  verb  which 
predicates  an  act  or  state  of  the  subject. 

Ex.  —  Full  many  a  /loioer  |  is  bom  to  blush  unseen. 

597.  Every  proposition  must  consist  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate, 

598.  A  Subject  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  denoting 
that  of  which  something  is  predicated. 

599.  The  Predicate  is  the  woVd  or  phrase  denoting 
what  is  said  of  the  subject.* 

Ex.  —  Bells  I  tolled. 

Full  many  a  flower  |  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
That  our  life  resembles  a  journey,  |  has  often  been  observed. 

600.  Every  subject  and  every  predicate  is  either  simple 
or  compound. 

601.  A  subject  is  simple^  when  it  has  but  one  subject- 
nominative  to  the  same  verb. 

602.  A  subject  is  compound,  when  it  has  two  or  more 
subject-nomi;iatives  to  the  same  verb. 

603.  A  predicate  is  simple,  when  it  has  but  one  predi- 
cate-verb belonging  to  the  same  subject. 

604.  A  predicate  is  compound,  when  it  has  two  or  more 
predicate- verbs  belonging  to  the  same  subject. 

Ex. —  Roses  I  fade.  . 

Hoses  and  lilies  |  bloom  and  fade. 
Days,  months,  years,  and  ages,  |  shall  circle  away. 
Full  many  a  flower  |  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 

*  The  subject  is  what  remsiins  after  the  predicate  is  removed  ;  the  predicate  is  what  re- 
mains alter  tlie  subject  i:t  removed.  The  subject,  or  the  entire  subject,  is  the  subjjct- 
iiDUiiiiative  with  all  its  modifiers  ;  the  pnulicate,  or  the  entire  predicate,  is  the  predicate- 
verb  with  all  Its  mcidifters.  When  the  subject  or  the  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more 
words,  the  teacher  may  let  the  pupil  call  it  the  enfire  subject^  tha  entire  predicate  }. 
simply  to  give  the  expression  a  little  more  fullness  ur  ftr.ce. 


ANALYSIS.  233 

The  subject-nominative  is  sometimes  called  the  grammatical  subject,  and 
the  predicate-verb  the  grammatical  predicate ;  the  entire  subject  is  sometimes 
called  tlie  logical  subject,  and  the  entire  predicate  the  logkal  predicate.  The 
predicate-verb  be,  or  any  other  neuter  verb,  is  sometimes  called  the  copula ; 
and  the  adjective,  noun,  or  liindred  expression,  which  follows  it,  is  some- 
times called  the  atfr-bitff.  * 

The  word  subject,  in  grammar,  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  entire  expression  to  which 
a  predicate  lefei's,  soiiietim  s  to  the  uotninative  only,  and  sometimes  to  a  |>frs.»n  or  thinffj 
the  word  object  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  goverued  word  or  expression,  and  sometimes  to 
a  pcrsuu  or  thiug. 

Mention  the  subjects,  the  predicates,  the  subject-nominatives,  the  predicate- 
verbs  ;  and  tell  whether  the  subjects  and  predicates  are  simple  or  compound :  — 

Deep  rivers  |  flow  in  silent  majesty. 

Rome  I  was  not  built  in  one  day. 

A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 

The  summer  breeze  parts  the  deep  mazes  of  the  forest  shades. 

There  is  a  mourner  o'er  the  humblest  grave. 

To  meet  danger  boldly  is  better  than  to  wait  for  it. 

Our  feelings  and  actions  are  evidently  according  to  our  belief! 
The  dipping  paddle  echoes  far, 
And  flashes  in  the  moonlight  gleam. 

When  the  subject  or  the  predicate  is  a  long  or  mixed  phrase,  it  may  be  bet- 
ter to  mention  first  the  pubject-nominative  or  predicate-verb,  and  then  the 
modiHers  that  make  with  it  the  entire  subject  or  predicate. 

MODIFIERS. 

695t  A  Modifier  is  a  dependent  word,  phrase,  or 
clause,  added  to  some  other  word  or  expression,  to  limit 
or  vary  the  meaning. 

Ex.  —  The  PATHS  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

The  and  of  glory  are  modiliera  ;  because  they  cease  to  make  sense  when  the  word 
paths  is  removed,  and  they  serve  to  show^  what  paths  are  meant. 

A  modifier  generally  specijies,  limits,  explains,  or  describes. 

606.  There  are  two  kinds  of  modifiers ;  adjective  and 
adverbial, 

607.  An  Adjective  Modifier  is  one  that  modifies  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  or  that  belongs  to  it  or  depends  on  it. 

An  adjective  modifier  generally  describes  some  person  or  thing. 

Ex.  —  "  Solomon's  Temple."    What  temple  ? 

"  David,  the  king  and  psalmist*'    What  David  ? 


234 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


«  The  land  of  palms."    AVhat  land  ? 
"  A  hill  crowned  with  majestic  trees"     What  kind  of  hill  ? 
"  A  proposition  to  sell  the  farm."     What  proposition  ? 
"  The  store  which  is  on  the  corner."     What  store  ? 

Qmit  the  words  land  and  hill,  nnd  you  can  ?ee  at  once  that  the  remaining 
words  cease  to  make  sense ;  tlieretbre  Intid  and  hill  are  prindpnl  words,  and 
the  others  depend  on  them.  To  ascertain  wiiich  word  can  not  be  omitted 
wahout  destroying  the  plirase  or  sentence,  or  tlie  sense,  will  generally  be  the 
easiest  way  iu  which  tiie  pupil  can  find  the  principal  word  and  its  modifiers. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  define  modifiers  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  di^finition  suflS- 
cieutly  coinprtheuaive,  auil  at  the  same  time  fircible  and  exact.  Our  delinition  <)f  aiijtc- 
tive  modiliers  would  ii)flude  predicates  ;  —  and,  in  truth,  all  predicatea  are  moilifiers  or 
attributes  of  theit  subjects  ;  —  hut  the  definition  which  we  iiuve  giveu  of  predicates, 
VfUi  euable  the  pupil  to  distiuguish  them  Irum  modifiers. 

608.  A  Noun  or  Pronoun  may  be  modified,  — 

!•  By  an  Article*    **  A  servant  brought  the  horse." 

2.  By  an  Adjective.    "  A  beauiifd  rose."    "  Money  enough.** 

3.  By  a  Possessive.    "  Jb/m's  horse."     "il/y  slate." 

4.  By  an  Appositive.  "John  the  sat/c/Zer."  "  The  poet  il/Z/ton." 

5.  By  a  Participle.    "  Fields  ploughed."    "  Birds  singing." 
.  6.  By  an  Infinitive.    "  Horses  to  be  fed."    "  A  house  to  let." 

Sometimes  also  an  adverb  modifies  a  substantive,  or  must  be  taken  with 
it  iu  analysis.  —  See  §  527. 

^  1.  By  an  Adjunct-    "  A  bunch  of  fresh  Jloicers." 

2.  By  an  Appositive  Phrase.    "  Greece,  the  cradle  of  arts." 

3.  By  a  Participial  Phrase.  "  Barns,  filed  withhay  and  grain.'* 

4.  By  an  Infinitive  Phrase.    "  Tics  never  to  be  thus  broken." 

5.  By  an  Adjective  Phrase.    "  Days,  short  and  very  cold." 
Sometimes,  thouph  very  seldom,  a  substantive  is  modified  by  an  absolute 

phrase  that  is  used  for  a  relative  clause. 

1.  By  a  Relative  Clause.     "  The  winds  which  bring  perfume." 

2.  By  an  Appositive  Clause.  "  It  was  lucky  that  I  found  it." 

3.  By  an  Adverbial  Clause.    "  The  place  where  he  fell." 
^  4.  By  a  Coxyunctive  Clause.  "A  request  that  you  will  come." 


By 
Words 


Phrases, 


Clauses. 


Exorcises. 
Mention  the  nouns  and  pronouns,  and  by  what  they  are  limited  or  modified:  — 
A  house.  Faithful  friends.  The  river  Hudson. 

An  orange.  Lurking  Indians.  Mary  the  cook. 


ANALYSIS. 


235 


The  ship. 
Warm  weather. 
Rainy  weather. 
Larsre  rooms. 


Twenty-five  dollars. 
Calirornia  bears. 
Virtue's  reward. 
Our  country's  welfare. 


The  President's  proelamation, 
A  path  through  the  woods. 
An  order  to  retreat. 
Scouts  to  watch  the  enemy. 
Indians  that  lurk  near. 
Lakes  frinsjcd  with  cedars. 


They  thcm-^elT'es. 

Time  mis.^peiit. 

I,  having  escaped. 

Visitors  much  delighted. 
The  songs  of  birds. 
A  man  without  money. 
A  watch  to  be  repaired. 
Indians  lurking  near. 
The  sun's  bright  beams. 
Two  pillars  of  marble. 
The  armaments  which  thunder-strike  the  walls  of  rock-built  cities. 

600.  An  Adverbial  Modifier  is  one  that  modifies  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb ;  or  that  belongs  to  it  or 
depends  on  it. 

An  adverbial  modifier  gcnprally  specifies  the  kind,  limits  the  action,  adds 
a  circumstance,  or  expresses  degree.  —  See  l)elow. 

A  modified  verb  is  a  finite  verb,  an  infinitive,  or  a  participle. 

By  adverhial  modifier  we  mean  whatever  is  added  to  a  verb  to 
make  with  it  a  predicate ;  or  whatever  modifies  an  adjective,  an  ad- 
verb, a  participle,  or  an  infinitive.  A  comprehensive  term  is  needed  ; 
so  that  we  are  compelled  either  to  enlarge  the  meaning  of  adverhial, 
or  to  coin  a  new  expression.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  call  these 
modifiers /)re(//ca'e  modifiers^  because  they  are  mostly  used^n  making 
predicates ;  and  all  adjective  modifiers  substantive  modifiers,  because 
they  modify  substantives. 

Predicate  or  Adverbial  Modifiers. 


610. 


Worils, 


A  Verb  may  be  modified,  — 

1.  By  an  Object.    "  Men  build  houses.'^ 

2.  By  a  Predicate  Substantive.    "  He  became  a  fiirmer?* 

3.  By  a  Predicate  Adjective.    "  The  milk  turned  sour.** 

4.  By  an  Adverb.    "  The  horse  ran ^as/." 

5.  By  a  Participle.    "  The  ball  went  whizzing.''^ 

6.  By  an  Infinitive.     "  I  have  come  to  he  instructed.''* 

"James  is  idle."  —  0  win  c^  to  a  slisrht  radical  rliffarence  in  the  modes  of 
classifying,  ih'-re  is  sometimes  an  apparent  iticonjrruity  between  Parsing  and 
Analysis.  Thus,  in  paiviiisr, /rf'e  is  referred  to  .yawie.?,  because  Jtt/rtf.<f  de- 
notes the  object  to  which  the  ((uality  belongs  ;  but,  ia  aualyzing,  it  is  referred 
to  is,  because  it  makes  with  ts  the  predicate. 


236 


ENGUSH  GRAMMAR. 


Phrases, 


Clauses. 


1.  By  an  Adjanct.    "  Apples  ^ow  on  trees:' 

2.  By  an  Objective  Phrase^    "  He  knew  when  to  sell^ 

3.  By  an  Explanatory  Phrase.   "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happi/.*' 

4.  By  an  Adverbial  Phrase.    *'  He  \f\\l  come  hij  and  bif." 

5.  By  a  Participial  Phrase.    **  He  fell,  graspincf  his  sivordJ* 

6.  By  an  Infinitive  Phrase.     "  He  fell  to  rise  no  more" 

7.  By  an  Absolute  Phrase.    *'He  being  sick,  I  returned." 

A  modifying  phrase  that  begins  with  an  art  verb,  as  well  as  a  phrase  that 
has  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  is  sometimes  best  called  an  adverbial  phrase. 

'  1.  By  an  Objective  Clause.    "  I  believe  that  he  is  honest." 

2.  By  an  Explanatory  Claase.  "My  wish  is,  that  you  remain." 

3.  By  an  Adverbial  Clause.    "  Study  while  you  are  young." 

4.  By  a  Conjunctive  Clause.  "\  am  con\mcQ^  that  you  are  right.** 


Cn.  An  Adjective  or  an  Advekb  can  liave  the  same 
modifiers  as  a  verb,  except  those  modifiers  which  are  sub- 
stantive or  adjective. 

Modifiers  of  adjectives  or  adverbs  generally  express  degree  or  circum- 
Etance. 

Exercises. 

Jfention  the  fnlte  verbs,  the  mfinitives,  and  ike  participles;  and  by  what 
ihey  are  limited  or  modijiid:  — 

Cast  not  pearls  before  swine. 
Columbus  did  not  become  disheartened. 
I  fully  intended  to  ^o. 
Concealing  himself  in  a  thicket. 
Act  wisely  that  you  may  win. 
The  horse  has  become  lame. 
To  write  neatly  and  rapidly. 


Exercises  produce  health. 

He  sold  a  variety  of  goods. 

She  thinks  he  is  rich. 

Time  is  money. 

He  is  considered  an  honest  man. 

She  was  there  yesterday. 

To  write  with  neatness. 

Nature  from  the  storm  shines  out  afresh. 

I  believe  he  will  succeed  when  he  makes  the  effort. 

The  sun  having  set,  wc  returned  to  the  camp,  and  made  a  fire, 

The  adjectives  and  the  adverbs,  and  by  what  they  are  limited  or  modified'. 

Uncommonly  beautiful.  How  dear  to  my  heart. 

It  is  very  badly  done. 


Too  beautiful  to  last, 
^lich  in  knowledge. 


She  studies  most  diligently. 


ANALYSIS.  237 

General  Remarks. 
61 2t  A  modified  word  may  have  two  or  more  modifiers  at 
the  same  time. 

613.  A  word  or  part  that  modifies  another,  may  itself  be 

modified. 

Ex.  —  "  The  boy  who  studied  most  dilijjently,  gained  the  prize." 
Roy  is  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the  relative  clause  who  studied  m»st  diligently; 
diliijently  modifies  studied,  iind  is  itself  mdditied  by  most, 
yirticies,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections,  are  never  modified. 

For  convenience,  all  modifiers  of  subject-nominatives  and  predicate-verbs 
may  be  called  primary  modijiers  ;  and  all  modifiers  of  these  may  be  called 
secondary  modijiers. 

614.  A  modified  word  may  be  called  principal^  in  regard  to 
that  which  modifies  it. 

615.  An  infinitive,  used  as  a  noun,  takes  only  the  modifiers 
of  a  vei'b. 

616.  A  participial  noun  takes  the  modifiers  of  either  a  verb 
or  a  noun. 

617.  An  adverbial  modifier  sometimes  modifies  a  whole 
phrase  or  clause,  rather  than  some  word  in  it. 

For  examples,  see  Note  VIl,  p.  196  ;  see  also  pp.  172  and  210. 

618.  Modify  WQ  use  as  the  most  comprehensive  word;  but 
limit,  explain,  and  describe  can  also  be  used,  especially  when 
more  appropriate  or  expressive. 

It  is  said  that  modifiers  always  limit.  This  is  not  true.  "I  study"  j  "I  do  not 
study."    ^ot  modifies  or  reverses  do  study ^  but  does  not  limit  it. 

,^  619.  The  predicate-verb  be,  when  followed  by  an  adjective, 
a  noun,  or  a  kindred  expression,  is  simply  combined  with  it, 
rather  than  modified  by  it ;  and  the  latter  term  can  generally 
be  called  an  attribute  of  the  subject. 

It  is  an  attribute  when  it  describes  ;  it  is  simply  an  explanatory  or  identi- 
fying term  when  it  explains  or  identifies.  "  Thou  art  a  man  "  ;  attribute. 
*'  Thou  art  the  man  " ;  identity.  "  It  was  the  wind  ";  wind  is  no  attribuf*. 
of  it. 

All  other  neuter  or  intransitive  verbs,  and  also  passive  verbs,  can  be 
be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  verb  he ;  though  it  is  seldom  necessary 
to  do  so,  because  the  word  modify  can  generally  be  applied  to  them. 


238  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

620.  All  adverbial  modifiers  can  be  divided  into  three 
classes :  — 

1.  Objective  Elements ;  objects,  —  words,  phrases,  and  clauses. 

2.  Attributive  Elements;  predicate  adjectives  or  substantives,  —  words, 

phrases,  and  clauses. 

3.  Adverbial  Elements  5  adverbs,  adjuncts,  etc., — words,  phrases,  and 

clauses. 

Thouf;h  this  classiflcation  !s  obvious  and  instructive  in  the  press,  in  practical  detail  it 
can  never  be  carried  far  without  endless  perplexity  :  because  participles,  iiiftiiitives,  and 
clauses,  belong  to  all  these  classes  ;  adjuncts  belong  to  at  least  two ;  and  all  these  parts 
range  and  intertwist  through  the  classes  by  many  and  almost  imperceptible  shades  ot  dif- 
ference.   To  a  ceruin  extent,  the  classi&catiou  can  be  made  profitable  in  schools. 

CONNECTIVES. 

621.  The  Connectives  are  the  conjunctions,  the  prep- 
ositions, the  relative  pronouns,  the  responsive  pronouns, 
and  the  conjunctive  adverbs. 

See  pp.  75, 181, 182, 185. 

622.  A  connective  that  is  not  a  conjunction,  performs 
also  the  office  of  the  part  of  speech  to  which  it  belongs. 

Connectives  may  consist  of  words  or  phrases. 

Also  the  clauses  ^'^  that  z.<?"  and  '■'■that  is  to  .taij"  are  sometimes  used  simply  as  co- 
ordinate conjunctions.  Such  phrases  as,  the  mompnt  that,  the  instant  that,  as  fur  as, 
as  soon  as,  etc.,  are  frequently  used  in  the  sense  of  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Connectives  are  generally  used  singly,  but  sometimes  in  pairs. 

Connectives  are  generally  expressed,  but  sometimes  they  are 
omitted. 

Parts  are  sometimes  connected  by  simple  succession  or  mere  de- 
pendence. 4 

Complex  sentences  have  most  connPctivp<3  •,  nnd  the  parts  of  compound  sentences  aro 
the  ones  most  frequently  couuected  by  bimple  suooe&sloa. 

INDEPENDENT    ELEMENT. 

623.  An  Independent  Element  may  be,  — 

1.  An  interjection. 

2.  An  adverb. 

8.  An  independent  nominative,  or  a  phrase  with  such 
a  nominative. 


ANALYSI&  239 

Ex.  —  0,  yes,  mij  Lord;  the  rallying  hosts  advance. 

Sometimes  an  iadependent  substantive  may  be  taken  as  a  part  of  a  logical  subject. 
Sometimes  an  independent  substantive  has  a  relative  clause  joined  to  it,  and  the  whole 
expression  then  forms  an  independent  propositional  phrase.    See  Gray's  Ode  to  Adversity. 

4.  Occasionally  an  absolute,  a  participial,  an  infinitive, 
or  a  prepositional  phrase. 

See  Note  V  and  Rule  II. 

Sometimes  a  sentence  has  a  loose  participial,  infinitive,  absolute,  or  prep- 
ositional phrase,  which  is  still,  however,  so  related  to  the  proposition  that 
it  can  generally  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  subject  or  the  predicate.  Such 
a  phrase  is  sometimes  grammatically  independent,  or  docs  not  modify  the 
matter  contained  in  the  proposition,  when  it  still  modifies  the  mode  of  as- 
sertion, or  shows  as  to  what,  or  under  what  restriction,  the  statement  is 
made.  The  phrase  then  modifies  the  proposition  in  the  sense  of  a  modal 
adcerb.  "  Generally  speaking  "  =  prohahli/;  "  Upon  the  whole  "  =  "  hence, 
probably'^  (See  p.  176.)  But  when  such  a  phrase  has  no  perceptible  con- 
nection with  the  remaining  words,  it  must  be  called  independent. 

624.  An  independent  element  may  accompany  any 
kind  of  sentence ;  and  sometimes  it  stands  by  itself,  like 
a  sentence. 

PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES. 

625.  A  phrase  or  clause  is  generally  named  from  its  leading 
or  introducing  word,  from  its  principal  word,  from  its  form,  or 
from  its  use  in  the  sentence. 

The  dififerent  systems  of  grammar  have  run  the  nomenclature  and  distinctions  of  phrases 
and  clauses  into  such  a  maze,  that  no  scientific  chissiflcation  can  now  be  made  without 
revolution  and  a  new  nomenclature.  The  following  seems  to  us  the  best  classification  that 
can  be  made  without  a  radical  change. 

626.  In  its  form,  a  phrase  may  be, — 

1.  Simple.    "  On  the  ground."     "  To  be  there."     "  A  large  tree." 

2.  Complex.    "At  the  close  of  the  day."    One  phrase  modifying  another. 

3.  Compound.    "At  night   and   in   the   morning."      Two   co-ordinate 

phrases  joined. 

4.  Propositional,   or    Clausal.      "  This  depends  on    who  the  commis- 

sioners are."     "  Between  him  and  the  man  whom  he  had  employed." 
A  phrase,  comprising  a  clause. 

5.  Mixed.    See  the  beginning  of  Paradise  Lost,  down  to  the  word  sing. 


240  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

G27.  In  its  grammatical  nnture,  a  phrase  imay  be  substan- 
tive,—  nominative,  possessive,  objective,  appositive;  adjective; 
participial;  iufiiiitive ;  prepositional  (the  adjunct);  adverbial; 
absolute;  independent;  idiomatic. 

For  examples  of  phrases  and  clauses,  see  pp.  234,  235,  and  236. 

C28.  In  its  logical  nature,  a  phrase  is  substantive,  adjective, 
adverbial,  or  independent. 

C29i  In  its  form^  a  clause  is,  — 

1.  SimpiC)  when  it  has  but  one  predicate. 

2.  Complex,  when  it  comprises  a  principal  clause  with  a  dependent  clause. 

3.  Compound,  when  it  comprises  two  co-ordinate  clauses. 

A  proposition  is  either  simple  or  complex.  A  complex  proposition  or 
clause  is  one  that  has  an  incorporated  clause,  or  a  clause  that  is  folded  in. 

A  combination  of  two  or  more  clauses  that  makes  but  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence, is  t-omctitnes  called  a  member;  but  the  term  complex  or  compound 
clause  is  probably  more  convenient. 

630i  In  its  grammatical  nature,  a  clause  mny  be  substantive, 
—  nominative,  objective,  appositive,  or  explanatory;  relative; 
adverbial ;  conjunctive. 

To  avoid  the  ambipuity  of  the  wonl  aitve.rbial,  it  would  be  well  to  call  clauses  that  be- 
gin with  conjunctive  adverbs,  conjunctive. 

631.  In  its  logical  nature,  a  clause  is  substantive,  adjective, 
or  adverbial. 

632.  By  a  farther  remove,  a  clause  may  be  considered,  — 
Independent  5  when  it  depends  on  no  other  clause.   And  then  it  is  prir^ 

cipul,  when  another  clause  depends  on  it  or  is  incorporated  into  it. 

Dei)cndent,  or  subordinate;  when  i*,  depends  on  some  word  or  phrase. 

Co-ordinate ;  when  it  is  a  companion,  of  equal  rank,  to  some  other  inde- 
pendent or  dependent  clause. 

SIMPLE    SENTENCES. 

633.  A  Simple  Sentenco  is  a  sentence  that  has  but 
one  proposition. 

It  may  have,  besides,  an  independent  word  or  phrase. 
The  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  has  no  clause. 
The  predicate  of  a  simple  sentence  has  no  clause. 

634*  The  core  of  syntax,  in  all  sentences,  is  predication. 


ANALYSIS.  241 

1.  Simplest  Combination  of  Subject  and  Predicate. 

Soldiers  fight.  Dogs  bark.  Time  flies.  Wolves  howl.  Doves 
coo.  Jewels  glitter.  Sin  degrades.  Bees  were  humming.  Mary 
was  chosen.    We  shall  return.    Clouds  are  gathering. 

Analysis.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  soldiers^ 
and  the  predicate  isji(/ld. 

2.  Object  added  to  the  Predicate-Verb. 

Dogs  bite  strangers.    Wolves  catch  lambs.    Lightning  strikes 

trees.     Misers  love  gold.     Merchants  sell  goods.     Horses  draw 

carriages.     Wealth  produces  pride.       I  shall  see  him. 

A-NALYSis.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  doffs. 
The  entire  predicate  is  bite  slranyers.  The  predicate-verb  is  bite^  which  ia 
limited  by  its  object  dogs. 

3.  Article  or  Adjective  added  to  the  Subject  or  the  Object. 

The  vessel  was  wrecked.   John  found  a  knife.   Leaves  cover 

the  ground.     Siveet  music  rose.     She  wrote  a  good  composition. 

Tall  and  beautiful  poplars  fringe  the  river. 

Anaia'sis.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is 
the  vd'sd;  the  subject-nominative  is  vtssd^  which  is  modified  by  the  article 
ike.      Was  wrecked  is  the  predicate. 

4.  Adjective  or  Nominative  added  to  the  Predicate-Verb. 

Lead  is  heavy.  Most  people  are  ambitious.  A  bad  com- 
panion is  dangerous.  The  wind  blew  cold.  Flies  are  insects. 
The  rose  is  a  famous  ^oiper.     It  was  you. 

Analysis.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Lead  is  the  subject. 
h  heavy  is  the  predicate,  /s  is  the  predicate-verb;  and  it  is  combined  with 
fterti'jy,  an  attribute  of  the  subject,  Flies  are  insects,  is  a  simple  declarative 
eentence.  Flies  is  the  subject,  are  insects  is  the  predicate.  Are  is  the  predi- 
cate-verbj  and  it  is  combined  with  insects,  an  attribute  of  the  subject. 

5.  Adverb  added  to  the  Predicate-Verb. 

John  comes  frequently.  Good  pupils  study  diligently.  The 
procession  moved  slowly.  The  eagle  flew  round  and  tlpwards. 
Flowers  are  peeping  out  \  everywhere.     I  was  there. 

6.  Adjunct  added  to  the  Predicate- Verb. 

The  mountain  is  clothed  with  evergreens.     The  wind  glided 
over  the  grass.    Our  troubles  are  aggravated  by  imaginary  evils. 
My  cousin  went  to  your  house,  \  at  noon,  \  in  a  carriage. 
U  r 


242  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR. 

Analysis.  —  This  is  a  pimplg  declarative  sentence.    The  snhject  is  tha 

miiuntfun ;  the  Fuliject-nomiuative  is  muuntain^  which  is  mo<!ified  by  the  arr 
tide  the.  Js  dotli'td  with  tvtryretns  is  the  predicate;  is  dulhcd  is  the  predi- 
cate-verb, which  IS  modified  by  the  adjunct  with  evergreens.     . 

7.  Adjunct  added  to  the  Subject  or  the  Object. 

A  wreath  of  rose-buds  encircled  her  head.     She  brought  a 

Ijaskct  of  fruit.    The  old  oak  is  loaded  with  a  flock  \  of  singing 

blackbirds.     The  path  through,  the  woods  is  cool  and  pleasant. 

Analysis.  —  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is 
a  wreath  vf.  rose-buds  ',  the  subject-nominative  is  wreath,  which  is  modified  by 
the  article'  a  and  tiie  adjunct  0/  rose-buds.  Encinied  her  head  is  the  entire 
predicate;  encirded  is  the  predicate-verb,  wdiicli  is  modified  by  the  object 
head,  and  head  is  modified  by  tlie  possessive  her. 

8.  Possessive  or  Appositive  added  to  Subject  or  Object. 

My  hat  is  new.  Mary's  eyes  are  blue.  Our  j  neighbor''s  bees 
left  their  hive.  Rogers  the  poet  was  a  banker.  Lake  Erie  is  a 
beautiful  sheet  of  water.   We  visited  Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy. 


Simple  Sentences  with  Adjuncts* 

Twilight  is  weeping  o'er  the  pensive  rose. 
The  world  is  bright  before  thee.  ^ 

The  hatred  of  brothers  is  the  hatred  of  devils. 
The  violet  has  mourned  above  their  graves  |  a  hundred  years. 
A  hiuidred  years  is  an  abridged  adjunct,  modifying  mourned. 

In  darkness  dissolves  the  gay  frost-work  of  bliss. 

Rhetoricnlly  nrranr/ed;  grnmmntically  arranged,  it  would  be,  The  gny  frost- 
■work  of  bliss  dissolves  in  darkness. 

Like  the  leaves  \  of  the  forest  they  all  passed  away. 

Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  is  an  adverbial  adjunct,  Tno(\\fy\n^  passed.  Ilame 
phra>es  beginning  with  like,  near,  or  worth,  froin  the  leading  word.  Say  that 
verbs  of  giving  are  modified  by ,  the  direct  object;  and  by ,  the  in- 
direct object. 

Tell  me  the  story.     I  gave  him  soi  le  wholesome  advice. 
I  insist  on  sending  |  him  |  the  horse  immediately. 
Is'^one  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 
Upon  the  whole,  I  am  pleased  with  the  terms. 

Jjwking  npon  the  whole,  etc.  But  it  is  probably  better  to  say,  that  upon  thd 
vhole  modifies  amjoleasedf  iu  the  seuse  of  a  modal  adverb.    (See  p.  176.) 


ANALYSIS.  243 

Simple  Sentences  with  Participial  or  Absolute  Phrasest 

The  poor  i'ellovv,  hajjled  so  often,  became  at  last  disheartened. 

I  saw  him  returning  home.    They  fled,  pursued  hy  our  cavalry. 

The  money  being  famished,  he  purchased  the  estate. 

The  absolute  phrase  relates  io  purchased,  and  modifies  it. 

She  sits  inclining  forward  as  to  speak,  | 

Her  lips  half  open,  and  her  finger  up.  —  ROGEHS. 

The  compound  absolute  phrase  tells  how  she  sits.  Sometimes  such  phrases 
are  independent.     Supply  bnng. 

Meanwhile  the  neighboring  fields,  trampled  and  beaten  down^ 

become  barren  and  dry,  affording  nothing  but  clouds  of  dust. 

That  is,  —  "  and  afTord,"  etc.  This  last  participial  phrase  relates  to  fields, 
in  the  sense  of  u  partial  predicate  ;  for  it  modifies  neither  the  subject  nor  the 
predicate.  Sometimes  a  participial  or  an  iufiuitive  phrase  is  almost  a  predi- 
cate or  clause. 

Simple  Sentences  with  Infinitive  Phrases. 

I  went  to  the  river  to  find  a  skiff. 

A  path  to  guide  us  could  not  be  found. 

To  protect  persons  and  property  is  the  duty  of  government. 

It  is  the  duty  of  government  to  protect  persons  and  property. 

The  best  way  to  thrive  is  to  keep  out  of  debt. 

She  has  learned  to  do  nothing  but  |  dress  and  visit. 

Surely  we  are  not  destined  to  live  always  in  war  and  discord. 

He  is  very  well  able  to  bear  the  loss. 

The  rain  makes  the  grass  grow  rapidly. 

The  gran?,  grow  rnpidh/  is  the  entire  object  of  mnlces,  and  ^nss  is  the  gram- 
matical object.  Such  infinitive  phrases  are  almost  clauses,  and  such  sen- 
tences are  nearly  complex;  but  they  are  still  simple  sentences. 

I  ordered  him  to  be  brought.     Let  no  one  pass  by. 

To  speak  plainly,  he  was  a  pedant  puffed  up  with  conceits. 

The  last  infinitive  phrase  is  grammatically  independent,  but  logically  it 
modifies  the  following  proposition  in  the  sense  of  a  modal  adverb.    Page  176. 

Simple  Sentences  with  Compound  Subjects. 

There  health  and  plenty  cheered  the  laboring  swain. 

FonMitLA.  —  A  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  subject;  the  subject- 
nominatives  are ,  connected  by ,  and  modified  by  ^ . 

Around  the  post  hung  helmets,  swords,  and  spears. 


244  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  Morn, 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
Ko  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

Simple  Sentences  with  Compound  Predicates. 

They  softly  lie,  and  sweetly  sleep,  low  in  the  ground. 
He  tried  each  art,  reproved  each  dull  delay, 
Allured  to  brighter  worlds,  and  led  the  way. 
Here  and  there  a  lark,  scared  from  his  feeding-place  in  the 
grass,  soars  up,  bubbling  forth  his  melody  in  globules  of  silvery 
sound,  and  settles  upon  some  tall  tree,  and  ivaves  his  wings,  and 
sin(/s  to  the  swaying  twigs. 

Simple  Sentences  with  Compound  Modifiers. 

The  water  ran  j  around  the  bridge  and  over  the  bridge. 
A  proverb  h  the  wit  of  one  and  the  wisdom  of  many. 
Let  I  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear,  with  a  disdainful  smile, 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

Bee,  ia  Gray's  Elegy,  stanzas  IG,  17,  and  18  ;  all  of  which  make  but  one  simple  sentence. 

Simple  Sentences  with  Independent  Parts. 

"Why,  r,o,  my  lord ;  he  has  not  failed. 

But  the  daughter  —  alas!   poor  creature — she  is  accom- 
plished, and  cannot  do  household  work. 
Flag  of  th§  brave!  thy  folds  shall  fly 
The  sign  of  hope  and  triumph  high.  —  Drake, 
Ah !  then  how  sweetly  closed  those  boyhood  days  I 
The  minutes  parting  one  by  one  like  rays.  —  Allston. 

[CT*  In  general,  any  part  of  all  the  foregoinfr  simple  scntenres  can  bo 
made  compound,  by  adding  similar  words  or  phrases,  and  thus  making  a 
scrirs;  and  any  part  can  bo  made  complex,  by  adding  modifiers,  which  arc 
generally  dfferent  words  or  phrases.  It  is  thus  that  hnf/  simple  sentences 
are  produced. 


ANALYSIS.  245 

2.   COMPLEX    SENTENCES. 

6S5.  A  Comples  Sentence  is  a  sentence  that  has  but 
one  independent  or  principal  clause,  with  one  or  more 
dependent  clauses. 

It  is  a  sentence  in  wliicli  the  parts  are  connected,  at  their  widest  or  greatest 
joint,  by  a  subordinate  relation. 

There  runs  through  discourse,  more  or  less,  a  serial  sense, 
and  also  a  modified  sense.  The  former  gives  us  compound 
structure ;  and  the  latter,  complex  structure. 

1.  A  sentence  that  consists  of  two  clauses  connected 
by  a  relative  pronoun,  is  complex, 

2.  A  sentence  that  consists  of  two  clauses  connected 
by  a  conjunctive  adverb,  is  complex. 

3.  A  sentence  that  consists  of  two  clauses  connected 
by  a  subordinate  conjunction,  is  complex. 

4.  A  sentence  that  consists  of  two  clauses,  of  which 
one  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  au 
adverb,  is  complex. 

This  class  includes  the  three  classes  before  it ;  and  it  is  itself  included  in 
the  p;eneral  class,  §  635. 

In  stead  of  having  but  two  clauses,  a  complex  Fentence  may  also  have  sev- 
eral distinct  clauses,  or  else  a  chister  of  clauses,  depending  thus  on  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  or  incorporated  into  it;  and  it  can  also  have  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent clauses,  provided  the  dependent  clause  relates  to  them  jointly. 

Almost  every  sentence  must  have  at  least  one  clause  that  is  independent ; 
and  its  clauses  may  all  be  so.  When  a  sentence  has  two  or  more  iudependent 
clauses,  it  is  generally  compound. 

636.  A  subordinate  clause  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in 
any  case  except  the  possessive. 

Substantive  Clauses. 
]Vominative  Clauses. 

That  the  soul  is  immortal,  is  believed  by  all  nations. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  of  which  the  subject  is  a  subordi- 
nate or  incorporated  clause.  That  the  soul  is  immorlnl,  is  the  principal  sub- 
ject ;  and  is  believed  by  all  nations  is  tlie  principal  predicate.  Is  believed  is  the 
predicate-verb  ;  and  it  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  by  all  nations.  That  is  the 
connective,  showing  the  dependence  of  the  subordinate  clause  on  something 
else.     The  soul,  of  9ie  dependent  clause,  is  the  subject,  etc. 


246  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Why  lie  did  not  go,  is  obvious. 

When  jEneas  landed  in  Italy,  is  not  known. 

Whether  he  can  finish  the  work,  is  doubtful. 

How  an  acorn  hecomes  an  oalc,  is  a  mystery. 

Where  Warren  fell,  is  not  precisely  known. 

By  what  means  he  succeeded,  has  never  been  explained. 

Can  he  hold  his  position  f  is  tlie  question. 

Appositive  Explanatory  Clauses. 

It  is  universally  believed  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  of  which  the  dependent  clause  is  in 
apposition  with  tlie  subject.  It,  with  the  clause  (hat  the  soul  is  imnwrlal,  is  the 
eniire  principal  subject'.  7f  is  the  subject-nominative,  which  is  modified  by 
the  explanatory  clause.  Is  unwers(dlt)  believed  is  the  principal  predicate;  ts 
belitctd  is  the  predicate-verb,  which  is  modified  by  the  adverb  universally. 
(Dispose  of  the  dependent  clause  as  heretofore.) 

It  is  obvious  why  he  did  not  go. 

It  is  not  known  when  jEneas  landed  in  Italy. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  he  can  finish  the  work. 

It  is  mysterious  how  an  acorn  hecomes  an  oak. 

It  is  not  precisely  known  tvhere  Warren  fell. 

It  has  never  been  ascertained  by  what  means  he  succeeded. 

The  question,  Can  he  succeed?  is  now  discussed  in  the  papers. 

They  did  not  seem  to  know  the  fact  that  all  parties  must  obey  the  laws. 

One  truth  is  clear ;  Whatever  is,  is  right. 

Objective  Clauses. 

All  nations  believe  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  of  which  the  object  is  a  dependent 
clause.  All  mitivnii  is  the  principal  subject:  nnthms  is  the  subject-nominative, 
modified  by  ctl.  Beliere  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  is  the  entire  principal  predi- 
cate; t)tUei'e  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  it  is  hmited  by  the  objective  clause 
Ihal  the  soul  is  immortal. 

You  now  see  ivhy  he  did  not  go. 

No  one  knows  when  jEneas  landed  in  Italy. 

We  doubt  whether  he  can  finish  the  work. 

I  have  been  considerina  hoio  an  acorn  becomes  an  oak. 

Our  guide  showed  us  ichere  Warren  is  supposed  to  have  fallen. 

I  have  never  ascertained  by  ichat  means  he  succeeded. 

lie  said,  "  How  can  I  ever  forget  your  favors  to  meV* 

The  laws,  he  thought,  should  he  more  rigidly  enforced. 

Teach  me  to  know  myself,  and  feel  what  others  are. 


ANALYSIS.  247 

Predicate  Explanatory  Clauses. 

Tlie  universal  belief  is,  that  the  soul  is  immortal.     - 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  into  which  a  dependent  clause  is 
fncorporated  as  a  predicate-noininative,  explanatory  of  the  subject.  (Analyze 
the  principal  subject.)  Js  //wf //ie  som/ ?'s  i«i/H<>r<a/,  is  the  principal  predicate; 
is  is  the  predicate- verb,  and  it  is  combined  with  the  predicate  clause  after  it, 
which  is  explanatory  of  the  subject. 

The  only  wonder  is,  that  one  head  can  contain  it  all. 

The  cause  of  anxiety  was,  why  he  did  not -write. 

One  of  the  greatest  mysteries  is,  how  an  acorn  becomes  an  oak. 

The  question  is,  "  What  is  it  best  to  do,  under  the  circumstances  f  " 

Adjective  Clauses. 
The  following  sentences  are  complex  because  each  has  a 
clause  that  is  used  as  an  adjective,  and  is  therefore  dependent. 
The  adjective  clause  is  usuaUy  folded  in  or  appended. 

Relative  Clauses  with  Expressed  Antecedents. 

The  man  who  escapes  censure,  is  fortunate. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  with  a  dependent  clause  used  as  an 
adjective.  The  entire  principal  subject  is,  the  man  who  escapes  censure ;  the 
subject-nominative  is  man,  and  it  is  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the  rela- 
tive clause  who  escapes  censure.  Is  finty,nate  is  the  principal  predicate.  Is 
is  the  predicate-verb;  and  it  is  combined  with  the  predicate  adjective  ./br^u- 
nate,  an  attribute  of  the  subject.  PF7/0  joins  the  dependent  clause  to  man,  and 
is  also  the  subject  of  the  dependent  clause.  Escapes  censure  is  the  predicate  j 
escapes  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  it  is  modified  by  its  object  censure. 

He  who  is  intelligent,  will  be  intelligible. 

INIary  has  brought  a  beautiful  rose,  which  grew  in  the  garden. 

The  man  whose  conscience  is  pure,  needs  fear  no  accusation. 

They  met  with  such  disasters  as  reduced  them  to  poverty. 

Who  that  loves  independence,  would  ever  become  a  politician  ? 

Yonder  is  the  plain  on  which  the  battle  teas  fought. 

The  man  on  whose  fidelity  I  relied  most,  was  absent. 

He  owned  several  lots,  from  the  sale  of  which  he  became  rich. 

There  never  yet  were  hearts  or  skies  clouds  might  not  ivander  through. 

That  is,  —  "  through  which  clouds  might  not  wander."  —  See  §  176. 
All  questions,  of  whatever^'^  nature  they  may  be,  are  referred  to  the 
council. 

Here  the  preceding  noun  is  not  an  antecedent ;  but  the  clause,  folded  in,  still  describes  it. 

All  questions,  whatever''  they  may  be,  are  decided  by  the  council. 


^8  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Relative  Clauses  without  Antecedents. 

Such  an  antecedent  is,  in  reality,  usually  included  or  comprehended  In  the  relaUve. 
What  can  not  be  prevented,  must  be  endured. 

This  i?  e  complex  declarative  sentence,  comprising  a  principal  and  an  in- 
corporated clause.  Tlie  entire  principal  subject  i«,  what  can  nut  be  prevented  } 
the  subject-nominative  is  iDhnl,  which  is  modified  by  the  subordinate  predicate, 
to  which  it  is  also  the  subject.  (Now  analyze  the  principal  predicate,  and 
then  the  subordinate  predicate.) 

The  foregoing  is  a  simplified  though  somewhat  anomalous  mode  of  analyzing ;  but  it  is 
logical,  and  can  be  easily  explained  to  the  pupil  A  double  relative  is  modified  by  tho 
Tist  of  the  subordinate  clause,  because  this  remainder  represents  a  simple  relative  clause 
that  is  partly  included  in  the  double  relative.  —  S.e  p.  193. 

What  is  thoroughly  understood,  is  easily  described. 

Whoever  plants  trees,  must  love  others  besides  himself. 

You  can  easily  explain  what  you  thorowjhly  understand. 
Can  ennl.y  explain  v>hat,  etc.,  is  the  entire  principal  predicate  ;  can  explain  is  Hiti- 
ited  by  mkat  ynu  tkorouyhly  underfstand  as  the  entire  object,  and  by  wkat  as  the 
grammatical  object,  which  is  modified  by  the  rest  of  the  subordinate  clause,  because  this 
represents  a  relative  clause  partly  comprised  in  what.  You  is  the  subordinate  subject} 
un'lp.rsi.an'1  is  the  predicate- verb,  which  is  modified  by  the  adverb  tliorouyhly  and  the 
relative  part  of  what. 

Most  politicians  advocate  ichatever  seems  popular. 

By  indolence  he  lost  what  ability  he  once  had. 

Whomsoever  the  bishop  appoints,  the  church  will  receive. 

I  will  not  object  to  what  is  reasonable. 

To  what  »>  rp.arnna'tfr.  is  the  entire  adjunct  -,  to  ivhat  is  the  grammatical  adjunct. 
What  is  the  gramo;aiical  object ;  and  it  is  modified  by  the  subordinate  predicate,  to 
which  it  is  also  the  subject. 

You  know  Jvhat  you  can  do,  by  what  you  have  done. 

It  is  the  ti^ec  which  in  /  know  not  what  fur  counti'y  grows. 

Adverbial  and  Conjunctive  Clauses  used  as  AcUcctivcs* 

Not  a  ?oldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
0'<;r  the  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried.  —  Wolfe. 
There  are  \\m<t9  when  the  soid  becomes  tired  of  its  earthly  pilgrimage. 
A  presentiment  that  he  would  be  killed,  made  him  sad. 
Where  and  when  are  used  in  place  of  m  which. 

What  kind  of  pre?cntiment  ?  Here  the  conjunctive  clause  is  rather  adjective  thaa  ap- 
pcsitlve  J  Im  it  rather  describes  than  identifies. 

Adverbial  Clauses. 

The  following  sentences  are  complex  because  each  has  a 
clause  that  is  used  as  an  adverb,  and  is  therefore  dependent. 
The  dependent  clause  generally  precedes  or  follows  the  princi- 
pal clause. 


3^5 


ANALYSIS.  249 

Adverbs  of  Time. 

Wlien  the  sun  riaes,  the  birds  begin  to  sing. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  pen*ence.  The  birds  begin  to  sing,  is  the 
principal  clause.  (  Analyze  it.)  When  the  sun  rises,  is  the  dependent  clause, 
Jnodifyin^  the  predicate  of  the  principal  chui^e  in  the  sen«e  of  an  adverb  of 
time.      W/icn  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  connecting  the  two  clauses. 

While  the  robbers  were  plundering,  she  set  fire  to  the  Louse. 

He  locked  the  door  after  the  horse  was  stolen. 

Before  reinforcements  could  be  sent,  the  battle  was  lost. 

He  has  become  a  citizen  of  this  place  since  you  were  here, 

I  will  take  care  of  your  horse  until  you  return. 

As  we  approached  the  top  of  the  hill,  we  saw  the  Indians. 

As  soon  as  my  money  teas  gone,  I  no  longer  had  friends. 

Then,  when  I  am  thy  captive,  talk  of  chains. 

Adverbs  of  Place. 

We  sowed  the  seed  where  the  soil  was  moist  and  loamy, 

Wltere  the  soil  teas  moist  nvd  loamy,  is  the  dependent  clause,  modifying  sowed 
in  the  sense  of  an  adverb  of  place. 

He  will  be  respected  wherever  he  may  be. 

As  far  as  we  went^  the  country  was  well  cultivated.     Page  250. 

Our  langnaoje  has  no  variety  of  clauses  to  express  place.  The  farther  anv 
field  of  expression  lies  from  the  common  track  of  thiiil\infr,  the  more  it  tends 
to  circumlocution  ;  and  vice  versa.  Place  is  somethino:  that  presses  so  closely 
and  variously  into  us.  and  its  ideas  are  fo  obvious,  that  they  have  been  fa- 
vored in  language  with  the  simpler  garb  cf  words  and  phrases  (adjuncts). 

Adverbs  of  Manner. 

Forgive  us  as  we  forgive  our  enemies. 

This  is  a  comnlex  imperative  sentence.  Forgive  (thou)  us,  is  the  principal 
clause.  As  we  forgive  our  enemies,  is  a  dependent  clause  of  manner,  modify- 
ing forgive. 

As  he  understands  it,  so  he  talks  about  it.     Page  212. 

As  blossoms  in  spring,  so  are  hopes  in  youth. 

You  will  please  to  speak  so  that  we  can  hear  you. 

The  dependent  clause  is  explanatory  of  so,  and  so  expresses  manner ;  but  the  clause 
also  implies  consequence. 

DejfTce  or  Extent* 

I  am  as  tall  as  he. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.    The  principal  clau«so  is,  /  fm  fig 
inli     The  dependent  clause  is  as  he  (is  tall),  wh'ch  is  an  adverbial  clause, 
modifying  in  an  explanatory  or  limiting  sense  the  phrase  as  tall,  or  more  di- 
rectly the  adverb  as.    It  determines  the  degree. 
11* 


250  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

She  sings  as  sweetly  as  a  nightingale. 

This  construction  expresses  sbraetinies  mere  manner;  but  the  idea  of  de- 
gree generaliV  predoiiimates. 

He  is  as  kind  to  me  as  he  can  he. 

I  was  as  much  instructed  as  I  was  excelled. 

We  were  so  fatigued  that  we  could  not  sleep. 

They  had  advanced  as  far  as  they  coidd  with  safety. 

I  have  gone  so  far  that  I  can  not  turn  hack. 

There  was  such  a  noise  that  I  could  not  rvrite. 
In  this  construction  the  dependent  clause  generally  implies  more  or  less  of 
decjree;  but  it  may  also  have,  partly  or  wholiv,  the  sense  of  an  identifving 
clause  explanatory  oisuch.    A  similar  remark  is  applicable  to  other  clauses. 

After  as  and  than^  words  are  genereJlj  understood. 
Contentment  is  better  than  wealth. 
He  has  more  than  I.     He  has  more  money  than  hrains, 
I  had  more  fear  than  it  was  prudent  to  confess. 
The  more  I  use  the  book,  the  better  I  like  it. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  consislin?  of  two  clauses  that  are  mutually  de- 
pendent. (Those  who  insist  on  having  one  indi.'pendent  clauss  in  every  sentence,  can  call 
the  second  clause  the  independent  one.  "  When  I  have  used  the  book  more,  I  shall  like 
it  better.") 

The  deeper  the  well,  the  cooler  the  water. 

Decree  is  an  abstract  idea,  but  a  very  comprehensive  and  multifarious  one, 
with  which  our  judgments  are  much  concerned  ;  hence  language  is  both  rich 
and  complicated  in  regard  to  it. 

Cause,  Purpose,  Doubt,  Concession,  etc. 

The  connectives  in  the  follovv'ing  sentences  are  subordinate 
conjunctions  ;  but  most  of  the  dependent  clauses  answer  to  the 
adverb  whi/,  or  imply  doubt ;  and  hence  the  clauses  fall  into  the 
general  analogy  of  modal  adverbs. 

The  corn  will  grow,  because  it  rained  last  night. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  clause  is,  the  com 
mil  rjrmo;  the  dependent  clause  is  the  conjunctive  clau'-c  because  it  mined 
hst  nlfjht,  which  is  used  adverbially,  to  modify  will  groto,  of  the  principal 
clause,  by  showing  wlnj. 

It  rained  last  night,  because  the  ground  is  icet. 

Observe  that  the  cause,  in  this  sentence,  is  lor/icnl,  and  not  phpsical.  The 
wet  ground  did  not  cause  the.  rain,  but  the  speaker's  belief;  and  therefore  we 
incline  to  think  words  should  be  supplied.  Thus:  "I  knotn  that  it  rained  last 
night,  becnuse  the  ground  is  wet."  A  vsimilar  remark  is  applicable  to  some 
other  sentences  that  have  conjunctive  clauses. 


ANALYSIS.  251 

Since  the  soil  has  been  enriclied,  the  corn  will  grow.    • 
As  he  is  quite  young  yet,  he  should  rather  go  to  school. 
I  will  not  sell  the  horse, /or  /  can  not  spare  him. 
Say  that  the  dependent  clause  modifies  will  not  sell.    It  is  often  better  to 
say  that  a  modifier  relates  to  a  phrase  or  chiuse,  than  to  try  to  make  every 
modifier  rehite  to  a  single  word.     Analysis  aims  to  take  in  the  whole  thought 
or  the  complete  ideas,  and  it  is  therefore  in  accordance  with  its  principles  to 
dispose  of  plirases  and  clauses  as  if  they  were  single  words-     Such  a  mode  of 
analyzing  will  also  often  remove  the  perplexity  when  a  word  seems  to  relate 
to  each  of  several  words  ;  for  in  such  cases  it  generally  relates  to  the  whole 
expression  rather  than  to  any  one  word  in  it. 

When /or  joins  two  members  of  a  sentence  so  loosely  that  they  can  be  sepa- 
rated into  two  sentences,  it  is  sometimes  better  to  call  the  sentence  compound. 

I  am  sorry  that  you  did  not  come. 
1  have  written  to  you,  that  you  may  Jcnoio  hoiu  we  are. 
"  These  lofty  trees  wave  not  less  proudly 
That  their  ancestors  moulder  beneath  them."  —  Bryant. 
If  both  the  vowels  are  sounded,  the  diphthong  is  proper. 
If  spring  have  no  blossoms,  autumn  will  have  no  fruit. 
Were  I  a  lawyer,  I  should  not  like  to  plead  a  rogue's  case. 
Unless  you  do  better,  you  will  lose  your  situation. 
Unsheathe  not  the  sword,  except  it  be  for  self-defense. 
However  much  I  may  regret  it,  I  can  not  do  otherwise. 
lie  hesitated^  zy^e^/jer  he  should  do  tlm,     (As  to.) 
//  Virgil  icas  the  better  artist,  Homer  was  the  greater  genius. 

This  is  a  loijical  condition,  not  a  physical.  (See  p.  250  )  "  If  you  maintain  that  Virgil 
was  the  better  artist,  I  shall  maintain  that  Homer  was  the  greater  genius." 

Though  the  whole  race  of  man  is  doomed  to  dissolution,  and  we  are 
all  hastening  to  our  long  home;  yet,  at  each  successive  moment,  life 
and  death  seem  to  divide  between  them  the  dominion  of  mankind, 
and  life  seems  to  have  the  larger  share. 

All  the  sentences  of  the  foregoing  class  are  allied  to  compound  sentences; 
and  there  are  sonae  grammarians  who  call  them  such.  Sometimes  it  is  better 
to  call  a  sentence  of  this  general  class  compound;  and  it  seems  to  us,  upon 
reflection,  that  it  woxild  be  better  to  call  such  sentences  as  the  last  on  p.  250, 
and  the  one  above  relating  to  Homer  and  Virgil,  compound,  than  to  supply 
words. 

I^°  In  general,  any  part  of  all  such  complex  sentences  as  we  have 
shown,  can  be  made  compound,  by  adding  similar  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses,  and  thus  making  a  series ;  and  any  part  can  be  made  compler, 
by  adding  modijiers,  which  are  generally  different  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 
It  is  thus  that  long  complex  sentences  are  produced. 


252  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

637t  Most  of  the  long  complex  sentences  are  made  so,  — 

1.  By  a  series  of  clauses. 

That  is,  some  clausal  element  is  expanded  into  a  series. 

"  I  call  that  MIND  free  which  protects  itself  against  animal  appetites, 
which  resists  the   usurpations  of  society,   \    which  recognizes  its  own 
greatness  and  immortalitjj,  \  and  which  ever  delights  to  pour  itself  forth 
in  fresh  and  higher  exertions."  —  CiiANNiNG,  abridged, 
"  We  can  not  help  knowing 

That  shies  are  clear  and  grass  is  growing, 

That  the  breeze  comes  whispering  in  our  ear^ 

That  dandelions  are  blossoming  near, 

That  maize  has  sprouted,  that  streams  are  flowing,"  etc.  —  Lowell. 

2.  By  a  gradation  of  clauses. 

"  There  is  strong  reason  to  suspect  that  some  able  "Whig  politicians, 
"who  thought  it  dangerous  to  relax,  at  that  moment,  the  laws  against 
political  offenses,  but  who  could  not,  without  incurring  the  charge  of 
inconsistency,  declare  themselves  adverse  to  relaxation,  had  con- 
ceived a  hope  that  they  might,  by  fomenting  the  dispute  about  the 
court  of  the  lord  high  steward,  defer  for  at  least  a  year  the  passing 
of  a  bill  which  they  disliked,  and  yet  could  not  decently  oppose." 

There  is  strojig  reason  fo  suspect. 
That  some  able  Whig  politicians  had  conceived  a  hope. 
(  TI7/0  thoiif/ht  it  dangerous  to  relax  (he  lues  against  political  offenses. 
But  loho  could  not  declare  theinsdces  averse  to  relaxation.) 
That  they  might  defer  for  at  least  a  year  ike  passing  of  a  bill. 
Which  they  disli/ced,  and  yet  could  not  decently  oppose. 
For  the  complete  analysis  of  this  sentence,  see  Kerl's  Comprehensive  English  Grammar. 

*'He  was  a  man  |  who  never  swerved  from  the  path  \  which  duty 

pointed  out," 
"  Come  I  as  the  winds  come  |  when  navies  are  stranded." 
" '  No,'  I  said  he ;  I  *  for  I  never  wished  |  that  it  might  be  so.'  '* 
"I  knew  a  man  |  who  had  it  for  a  by-word,  |  when  he  saw  men 

hasten  to  a  conclusion,  |  '  Stay  a  little,  |  that  we  may  make  an 

end  the  sooner.'  "  —  Bacon. 
We  have  now  shown  the  different  modes  of  forming  nenrly  all  complex  sen- 
tences. There  are,  besides,  a  few  peculiar  sentences  of  this  general  class 
that  lie  in  the  unfrQC[uei)ted  nooks  and  around  the  borders  of  the  empire;  but 
we  must  leave  them  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher,  for  we  have  not  room  for 
them,  and  they  can  easily  be  referred  to  the  general  definition,  §  635, 


ANALYSIS.  253 

COMPOUND    SENTENCES. 

CS8.  A  Compound  Sontence  is  a  sentence  tliat  has 
two  or  more  independent  clauses. 

It  is  a  sentence  in  which  the  parts  are  connected,  at  their  widest  or  greatest 
joint,  by  a  co-ordinate  relation. 

1.  A  sentence  that  consists  of  two  clauses,  connected 
by  a  co-ordinate  conjunction,  is  compound. 

Ex.  —  The  way  was  long,  and  the  wind  was  cold. 

2.  A  sentence,  consisting  of  two  clauses  that  have  no 
connective,  is  generally  compound. 

Ex.  —  Some  ran  into  the  woods;  others  plunged  into  the  river. 

639.  A  compound  sentence  may  consist,  — 

1.  Of  two  or  more  simple  sentences.* 
Ex.  —  Life  is  short,  [  and  art  is  long. 

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day; 
The  lowing  herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me."  —  Gray. 

2.  Of  two  or  more  complex  sentences. 

"  He  lived  as  mothers  wish  their  sons  to  live ; 
He  died  as  fathers  Avish  their  sons  to  die."  — Ilalleclc. 
"  What  in  me  is  dark,  illumine ;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support.** 
"  The  character  of  General  Washington,  which  his  contemporaries 
reverence  and  admire,  will  be  transmitted  to  posterity;  and  the 
memory  of  his  virtues,  while  patriotism  and  virtue  are  held  sacred 
among  men,  will  remain  undiminished."' 

3.  Of  two  or  more  compound  sentences. 

Ex.  —  "Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill;   talent  is  "wealth,  tact  is 
ready  money." 

''  There  's  the  marble,  there  *s  the  chisel ; 
Take  them,  work  them  to  thy  will : 
Thou  alone  must  shape  thy  future,  — 
Heaven  give  thee  strength  and  skill." 

A  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  members  ;  and  the  first  member,  of  two  com- 
pound clauses. 

•  *'  That  Is,  of  two  or  more  clauses,  equivalent  to  sentences." 


254  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

4.  Of  a  mixture  of  simple,  complex,  and  compound 
sentences. 

Ex.  —  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long ;  therefore  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  reach  perfection  in  any  thing."  —  Goethe. 
"  Though  the  world  smile  on  you  blandly, 
Let  your  friends  be  choice  and  few; 
Choose  your  course,  pursue  it  grandly, 
And  achieve  what  you  pursue."  —  Read. 

A  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  members  \  and  the  second  member,  of  two 
simple  clauses  and  a  complex  clause. 

5.  Of  an  independent  clausal  phrase,  and  a  clause. 

"  Triumphal  arch  !  that  fill'st  the  sky  when  storms  prepare  to  part, 

I  a?l:  not  proud  philosophy  to  teach  me  what  thou  art.'' 
The  independent  clausal  phrase  here  ranks  with  an  independent  clause. 

640.  Compound  sentences  may  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing classes :  — 

Copulative.    Parts  united  in  Meaning. 

Times  change,  and  we  change  with  them. 

The  house  was  sold ;  ^  also  the  furniture.  ^  (And.) 

Alice  has  been  studious,  as  well  as  James. 

The  way  is  beset  by  enemies ;  besides,  we  have  no  provisions, 

I  believe  it  is  so ;  na^j,  I  am  sure  it  can  not  be  otherwise. 

The  people  demand  peace ;  yea,  the  army  itself  demands  it. 

Since  mere  succession  implies  addition  or  connection,  copulative  conjunc- 
tions are  often  omitted. 

"  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold, 

The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old."  —  Scott. 
"  It  burst ;  it  fell ;  and,  lo  !  a  skeleton."  —  Rogers. 

Disjunctive.    Parts  united  in  Form  but  separated  in  Meaning. 

You  may  study  your  lessons,  or  you  may  write  a  composition. 
We  can  not  assist  him,  nor  can  you. 
Strong  proofs,  (and)  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  conviction. 
Also  clauses  joined  by  or  else  or  neither  make  compound  sentences. 

Adversative.    Parts  opposed  in  Meaning. 

The  world  is  made  for  happiness ;  but  many  people  make  themselves 
miserable. 


ANALYSIS.  255 

There  is  much  wealth  in  England,  yet  there  arc  many  poor  people. 
He  has  acted  unwisely ;  nevertheless  I  will  help  him.  [him. 

The  wounded  man  died ;  nolwitlmtanding  several  surgeons  attended 
The  dictionary  is  not  perfect ;  still  it  is  the  best  we  have. 
The  prospect  is  not  good  ;  I  will  do,  however,  the  best  I  can. 
He  is  a  sensible  man  ;  though  he  is  not  a  genius. 

Illative.  Parts  related  ia  tiae  Sense  of  Consequence  or  Inference. 

The  three  angles  are  equal ;  therefore  the  three  sides  are  equal. 

Observe  that  the  equality  of  the  sides  does  not  show  how  the  angles  are  equal ; 
and  although  the  first  clnii'^e  is  the  basis  of  the  truth  in  the  second,  yet  this 
meaning  is  taken  up  by  the  substitute  therefore,  which  modifies  the  second 
predicate,  being  equivalent  to  the  phrase  from  this  cause.  And,  understood, 
13  the  real  connective. 

The  ground  is  wet ;  therefore  It  rained. 

He  is  not  at  home  ;  hence  I  have  not  written  to  him. 

Corn  is  very  cheap ;  so  I  concluded  not  to  sell  mine. 

You  see  I  am  busy;  then  why  do  you  trouble  me  ? 
The  relation  of  consequence  or  inference  is  a  very  common  and  forcible 
one;  and  hence  the  connective  in  many  such  sentences  may  also  be  omitted, 
the  meaning  being  sufficiently  obvious  without  it.  By  reversing  the  propo- 
sitions, the  sentences  would  come  under  the  head  of  cause;  and  hence  many 
sentences  of  this  kind  also  dispense  with  the  connective,  and  are  then  gen- 
erally compound  fcentences  rather  than  complex. 

He  is  a  mean  boy ;  let  him  alone. 
Let  him  alone  :  he  is  a  mean  boy. 

Such  a  sentence  may  be  considered  compound,  chiefly  because  it  could  be 
divided  into  two  sentences. 

He  is  poor :  deal  liberally  with  him. 

Deal  liberally  with  him  :  he  is  poor. 

Live  not  in  suspense  :  it  is  the  life  of  a  spider. 

To  the  foregoing  sentences  may  be  added  a  few  others  that  are  somewhat 
different;  but  of  which  tlie  second  clause  is  still  in  some  way  explanatory  of 
the  first,  or  is  suggested  by  it. 

You  know  the  man  ;  do  you  not  ? 

"  Each  rising  art  by  just  gradation  moves : 

Toil  builds  on  toil ;  and  age  on  age  improves." —  Collins. 

"  Ambition  often  puts  men  upon  performing  the  meanest  offices : 

BO  climbing  -and  creeping  are  performed  in  the  same  posture." — Swift. 

"  That  which  we  have  acquired  with  most  difficulty,  we  retain  the 

longest;   as  those  who  have  earned  a  fortune,  are  generally  more 

cai'eful  in  keeping  it  than  those  who  have  inherited  one."  —  CoUon. 


256  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Parenthetic.    An  Extraneous  Clause  between  Related  Parts. 

A  parenthetic  clause  that  is  not  used  in  the  sense  of  a  part 
of  speech,  and  that  has  not  the  remainder  of  the  sentence  for 
its  object,  generally  makes  the  sentence  compound. 

"  A  rose  —  I  know  not  how  it  came  there  —  lay  on  my  book.'* 

A  rose  lay  on  my  book :  I  know  not  how  it  came  there. 

''  They  call  us  angels  —  though  I  am  proud  to  say  no  man  ever  so 
insulted  my  understanding  —  that  they  may  make  us  slaves."— JerroW. 

When  you  meet  with  a  long  sentence,  glance  through  it,  and  notice  the 
joints  between  clauses.  If  the  sense  at  the  greatest  or  widest  of  these  joints 
is  a  subordinate  relation,  the  sentence  is  complex;  if  a  co-ordinate  relation, 
the  sentence  is  com}x>nnd. 

The  general  construction  of  sentences  is  this:  Words  make  phrases ; 
words  or  phrases  make  simple  sentences;  simple  sentences  make  complex 
or  (ompound  sentences;  and  simple,  conjplex,  or  compound  sentences 
make  compound  sentences.  Complex  sentences  are  sometimes  said  to  be 
compact  in  structure  ;  and  compound,  loose. 

A  senlence  is  sometimes  compound  in  form,  but  complex  in  sense;  and 
sometimes  complex  in  form,  I)ut  compound  in  sense.  When  these  cliar- 
acteristics  arc  strongly  developed,  the  sentence  may  bo  analyzed  accord- 
ingly. (See  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar,  p.  85.)  For  the  sake  of 
greater  effect,  conditional  or  dependent  clauses  are  sometimes  expressed  in 
the  form  of  independent  interrogative  or  imperative  clauses. 

Having  now  shown  the  general  construction  of  sentences,  let  us  next  no- 
tice some  of  the  modifying  laws,  which  may  be  explained  under  two  heads, — 
Conlraction-Sind  Arrangement. 

CONTRACTION. 

641.  Brevity,  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  is  ob- 
tained either  by  ellipsis  or  by  abridgment. 

Sometimes,  by  substituting  a  different  expression. 

642.  Compound  constructions  are  generally  shortened 
by  ellipsis. 

643.  Complex  constructions  are  generally  shortened  by 
abridgment. 

614.  Compound  Elements.  When  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence  have  the  same  predicate,  the  sentence 
can  be  changed  to  a  simple  one  with  a  compound  subject. 


CONTRACTION.  257 

"  Wheat  grows  well  on  these  hills,  and  barley  grows  well  on  these  hills." 
Wheat  and  barley  grow  well  on  these  hills. 

C45,  When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  have 
the  same  subject,  the  sentence  can  be  changed  to  a 
simple  one  with  a  compound  predicate. 

"  The  liurricane  tore  down  trees,  and  the  hurricane  overturned  houses." 
The  hurricane  tore  down  trees,  and  overturned  houses. 

640.  When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  have 
the  same  subject  and  predicate-verb,  all  the  repeated 
parts  can  be  omitted. 

*'  He  is  a  wise  man;  he  is  a  good  man;  and  he  is  a  patriotic  man." 
He  is  a  wise,  good,  and  patriotic  man. 

647i  A  compound  modifier  is  contracted  by  referring 
the  common  part  to  the  rest  of  the  phrase  as  a  compound. 
Ex.  —  "  In  peace  and  in  war  "  ==  In  peace  and  war. 
"  To  the  house  and  from  the  house  "  =  To  and  from  the  house. 
"  To  speak  prudentlj  and  act  prudentf/j'^  =  To  speak  and  act  prudently. 

648.  Simple  SentGiicos  are  often  contracted  by  re- 
taining only  the  most  important  part,  or  that  which 
necessarily  implies  the  rest. 

"Bread."  "Order!"  "Arm!" 

Give  me  some  bread.  Let  us  have  order.  Arm  ye  yourselve3. 

In  accordance  with  this  nnalojry.  lancnaffe  has  sinfjle  words  that  are  perma- 
nently used  as  equivalents  or  reprcieutatives  of  sentences ;  as,  ijes,  no,  well,  why. 

649.  The  verb  he,  in  all  its  forms,  is  frequently  omitted. 
"  Where  now  her  glittering  towers  ?  "     Where  are  now,  etc. 

''  This  done,  we  instantly  departed."     This  beinfj  done,  etc. 
[To  be']  "  Everybody's  friend,  [is  to  be]  everybody's  fool." 
The  subject  of  the  imperative  mood  is  generally  omitted  ;  and  an 
imperative  verb  may  be  omitted  with  its  subject  when  there  remains 
a  forcible  adverb  to  represent  the  entire  expression. 

650.  Language  frequently  affords  us  the  choice  of 
either  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause ;  especially  in  regard 
to  modifiers. 

"P/easanf  scenes."    "  Sceuea  of  pleasure.'*     ^^  Scenes  that  please.** 


258  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

651.  A  word  or  phrase  that  remains  as  the  result  of 
abridgment,  generally  retains  the  logical  construction  of 
the  phrase  or  clause  which  it  represents,  or  from  which 
it  is  abridged. 

Ex.  —  "  I  BELIEVE  that  he  is  honest  "  =  I  believe  him  to  he  honest. 

To  ascertain  the  syntax  of  a  difficult  word  or  phrase,  it  is  often 
best  to  consider  the  term  the  result  of  contraction,  and  to  pass  thenco 
to  the  original  expression ;  yet  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  there 
ever  was  a  perfect  and  ponderous  language  from  which  all  the  parts 
thus  supplied  have  fallen  away  by  ellipsis  or  abridgment. 

There  are  many  exceptions  to  what  is  usually  taught  about  equivnTent  ex- 
pressions. The  constructions  which  we  are  obliged  to  call  equivaients,  fre- 
quently differ  from  each  other,  at  least  rhetorically,  by  a  shade  of  tneariing. 
"  1  believe  that  ke  is  fionest,"  and  "  1  believe  him  to  be  honest,'^  are  equivalent ; 
but  "  I  will  see  that  he  does  it,''  and  '•  I  will  see  him  do  if,''  are  different.  "  A 
purse  oysiik  "  is  the  same  as  "  a  silken  purse  " ;  but  "  a  purse  of  (juW'  is  not 
*'  a  golden  purse." 

652.  Compies  Ssntences  can  oflcn  be  abridged  into 
simple  sentences. 

Ex.  —  "  As  ice  approached  the  Jiouse,  we  saw  that  the  enemy  icere 
retreating"  =  On  approaching  the  Jiouse,  Ave  saw  the  enemj  reLreating. 

The  abridged  part  is  usually  the  dependent  clause. 

C53.  The  abridged  form  of  a  substantive  clause  is  gen- 
erally an  infinitive  phrase. 

"  That  1  may  go  ahne,  is  "my  wish  "  =  To  go  alone  is  my  wish. 
"  It  is  my  wish  that  I  may  go  alone  "  =  It  is  my  wish  to  go  alone. 
*'  I  wish  that  he  may  go  alone  "  =  1  v/ish  hlni  to  go  alone. 
Sometimes  the  depeudjnt  clause  is  abridged  into  a  participial  phrase. 

654.  The  abridged  form  of  an  adjective  clause  is,  — 

1.  An  adjunct  or  an  adjective. 

Ex.  —  "  Our  house  lohich  is  in  the  country"  =  Our  house  in,  the 
country  =  Our  country  house. 

2.  A  participial  phrase. 

"  The  book  which  contains  the  story  "  =  The  book  containing  the  story. 

3.  An  infinitive  phrase. 

"  A  day  that  may  suit  you  '  =  A  day  to  suit  you. 

4.  Sometimes  an  absolute  phrase. 

For  an  example,  see  p.  269. 


CONTRACTION.  259 

655.  The  abridsed  form  of  an  adverbial  clause  is,  — 

1.  An  adjunct. 

Ex.  —  "  You  will  suffer  from  cold,  if  you  remain  here.** 
You  will  suffer  from  cold,  hy  reinaininj  here. 

2.  A  participial  phrase. 

Ex.  —  "  When  I  had  eaten  my  dinner,  I  returned  to  the  store.** 
Having  ealen  my  dinner,  I  returned  to  the  store. 

3.  An  infinitive  phrase. 

Ex.  —  "I  have  come  that  I  may  assist  youJ* 
I  have  come  to  assist  you. 

4.  An  absolute  phrase. 

«]F/ien  Coesar  had  crossed  the  Rubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for  battle.** 
Ccesar  having  crossed  the  Rubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for  battle. 
Sometimes  there  remains,  by  abridgment,  simply  a  participle,  aa 
infinitive,  or  a  single  word  of  some  other  kind. 

658,  Sometimes  only  the  prominent  part  of  the  depend- 
ent clause  is  retained. 

"  When  young,  life's  journey  I  began  "  ■=  "When  /  teas  young,  etc. 
"Ifso,  you  need  not  remain  longer  "  =  If  it  is  so,  etc. 
•'  It  is  more  easily  imagined  than  described  "  ;  i.  e.,  than  it  is  described. 
The  pronoun,  and  the  verb  be,  are  thus  often  omitted  together. 

657.  When  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  clause 
have  both  the  same  subject,  the  subordinate  clause  gen- 
erally loses  its  subject  by  abridgment. 

"  When  /  had  done  this,  /  returned  "  =  Having  done  this,  /returned, 
''/came  that  /  might  assist  you  "  =  I  came  to  assist  you. 

658.  When  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  clause 
have  different  subjects,  the  subject  of  the  subordinate 
clause  usually  remains  ;  but  it  is  generally  changed  in  its 
case,  to  suit  the  syntax  of  the  new  arrangement. 

"  I  expect  that  he  will  come  "  =  I  expect  him  to  come. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  wrote  it "  =  There  is  no  doubt  of  his  having 
written  it.  *'  When  he  was  caxight^  we  returned  "  ==  He  being  caught,  we  re- 
turned. 

The  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  generally  becomes,  by  contraction,  an  objoctlve 
Word,  a  possessive  word,  or  a  uominative  absolute. 


260  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

659.  A  modifying  phrase  can  often  be  abridged  into  a 
compound  word. 

Ex. —  "Boots  with  red  tops"  =  red-topped  boots.  "Having  a 
sharp  edge  "  =  shcap-edged. 

660.  Connectives  can  often  be  omitted. 

See  §§  176,  551,  559. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

661 .  The  place  most  important  in  a  sentence  is  the  be- 
ginning ;  and  the  next  most  important  is  the  end. 

Hence  the  subject,  which  is  the  germ  of  the  whole  sentence,  nat- 
urally stands  first ;  as,  "  Rome  was  an  ocean  of  flame." —  Crolij. 

662.  When  a  subordinate  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  de- 
notes what  is  most  striking,  or  w^hat  is  uppermost  in  the 
speaker's  mind,  it  may  occupy  the  chief  place. 

Adjective :  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Epliesians." 

Verb  t  "  Out-flew  millions  of  flaming  swords."  —  Milton. 

Object:  "  SUver  and  gold  have  I  none." 

Adverb :  "  Down  I  set  him,  and  away  he  ran.'* 

Adjuncts  8  "  Bij  these  [swords] ,  we  acquired  our  liberty ;  and  with,  these,'*  etc. 

lufinitive  or  Participle :  "  To  do  this,  men  and  money  are  needed.'* 

663.  Frequently,  an  adjunct,  a  participial  phrase,  or 
an  infinitive  phrase,  may  be  transposed. 

Ex.  —  "/«  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the  Roman  stato 
evidently  declined  "  =  The  Roman  state,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury,  evidently  declined  ==  The  Roman  state  evidently  declined 
in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury. 

664.  Frequently,  the  clauses  may  change  places,  or 
one  may  be  placed  within  another. 

Ex.  —  "7/"  you  desire  it,  I  will  accompany  you  "  =  I  will  accom- 
pany you,  if  you  desire  it  =  I  will,  if  you  desire  it,  accompany  you. 

065.  Some  regard  should  be  paid  to  the  relative  im- 
portance of  the  parts,  and  to  the  natural  order  of  things. 

666.  A  sentence  so  constructed  that  the  meaning  is 
suspended  till  the  close,  is  called  a  jyeriod. 

See  the  beginning  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 


ANALYSIS  AND   PARSING.  261 

SENTENCES    FOR    PARSING. 

D;;^  The  following  sentences  comprise  the  general  circuit  of  principles 
involved  in  Parsing. 

A  fisherman's  boat  carried  the  passengers  to  a  small  island. 
Mexico  lies  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
I  have  John's  book,  not  Mary's.  He,  being  a  mere  boy,  was 
spared.  He  being  a  mere  boy,  the  Indians  spared  him.  Friends, 
Romans,  counti-ymen,  lend  me  your  ears.  Hail,  Sabbath,  theo 
I  hail,  —  the  poor  man's  day. 

2. 

I  will  never  forsake  you.  The  party  reposed  themselves  on 
the  shady  lawn.  John  and  James  know  their  lessons.  Neither 
John  nor  James  knows  his  lesson.  It  is  wicked  to  scoff  at  re- 
ligion. It  is  too  early  for  flowers.  It  was  he.  My  heart  beats 
yet,  but  hers  I  can  not  feel. 

3. 

That  man  is  enslaved  who  can  not  govern  himself.  Assist 
such  as  need  thy  assistance.  Whatsoever  he  doeth,  shall  pros- 
per. I  see  you  what  you  are.  Whom  do  you  take  him  to  be  ? 
"  Who  is  there  to  mourn  for  Logan  ?  —  Not  one."  The  profit 
is  hardly  worth  the  trouble.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  three  thou- 
sand miles  wide. 

4. 

On  the  grassy  bank  stood  a  tall  waving  ash  sound  to  the  very 
top.  There  are  two  larger  pear-trees  in  the  second  row.  The 
cedars  highest  on  the  mountain  are  the  smallest.  It  is  well  to 
be  temperate  in  all  things  whatsoever.  You  are  yet  young 
enough  to  learn  the  French  language  very  easily.  She  gazed 
long  upon  the  clouds  in  the  west,  while  they  were  slowly  pass- 
ing away.  The  pipers  loud^'^  and  louder  blew;  the  dancers 
quick^*^  aiid  quicker  flew. 

5. 

Respect  yourself.  I  would  I  were  at  home.  You  or  he  is 
to  blame.     You  behave  too  badly  to  go  into  company.     James 


262  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

ran  fast,  pursuin*^  John,  and  pursued  by  us.  Considering  his 
age,  he  is  far  advanced.  To  speak  phiinly,  I  do  not  like  her. 
To  escape  was  impossible.  It  is  easier  to  be  a  great  historian 
than  a  great  poet.  The  sailors,  in  wandering  over  the  island, 
found  several  trees  bearing  delicious  fruit.  That  he  should 
think  so,  is  strange. 

0. 
A  troop  of  girls  are  searching  for  flowers  on  yonder  hill. 
The  Rhone  flows  out  from  among  the  Alps.  Washington  died 
at  his  residence,  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799 ;  and  was 
buried  near  the  Potomac,  among  his  relatives.  However,  if 
they  do  not  come,  I  shall  neither  wait  nor  return.  Such,  alas ! 
is  the  fate  of  ambition. 

CONDENSED  ORDER  OF  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

Sentence ;  simple,  complex,  or  compound ;  declarative,  interrogative,  im- 
perative, exclamatory,  or  a  composite  of. 

Independent  Phrase,  if  any;  principal  word,  modifiers. 

Simple  Sentence;  Ruhject,  subject-uominative,  modifiers ;  predicate,  predi- 
cate-verb, modifiers. 

Complex  Sentence ;  independent  or  principal  clause ;  analysis.  Depend- 
ent clause  or  clauses ;  analysis. 

Compound  Sentence ;  consisting  of,  ^  639.    Analyze  the  clauses. 

Article:  kind;  disposal;  Rule. 

Adjective;  kind;  sub-class;  comparison;  degree;  disposal;  Rule. 
Noun  ;  kind  ;  gender;  person  ;  number  ;  declension  ;  case ;  disposal ;  Rule. 
Pronoun;  kind;  sub-class;  antecedent  and  Rule  IX,  or  gender,  person, 

number;  declension;  case;  disposal;  Rule. 
Finite  Verb ;  principal  parts ;  kind  in  regard  to  form  ;  kind  in  regard  to 
objects,  —  with  voice;    mood;   tense;  form;  synopsis;  conjugation; 
person  and  number ;  disposal;  Rule. 
Omit  synopsis,  conjugation,  and  declension,  when  familiar  to  the  student. 
Infinitive;  its  form*  ;  kind  in  regard  to  time;  kind  in  regard  to  objects, 
—  with  voice  ;  disposal;  Rule.     (So,  Participles.) 
Ivfinitive,  used  as  a  noun  •,  its  nature  as  an  infinitive  ;  its  nature  as  a  nnun  ;  disposal ; 
Rule  fur  nouns     (In  a  similar  way  dispose  of  participial  nouns  and  participial  adjectives.^ 

Adverb ;  kind  ;  comparison  ;  degree  ;  disposal ;  Rule. 

Preposition  ;  relation  ;  Rule. 

Cojyunction ;  kind  ;  connection  ;  Rule. 

Interjection;  kind;  Rule,     (See  Kerl's  "First  Lessons,"  p.  12K) 


ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  263 

SENTENCES  FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING. 

The  following  collection  of  sentences  is  of  such  a  nature,  and  has  been  so 
classificil,  us  to  exhibit  the  types  of  all  sentences,  and  the  general  construction 
of  language  according  to  the  principles  of  Analysis. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 
Simple  Subjects  and  Predicates. 

Unmodified. 
1.  Banners  waved.     2.  Lights  were  shining.      3.  He 
should  have  been  rewarded.     4.  Could  they  have  gone  ? 
6.  To  whisper  is  forbidden.     6.  Whispering  is  forbidden. 

ModiHed  by  Words  and  Phrases. 

1.  Manners  make  fortunes.  2.  These  roses  are  very 
beautiful.  3.  Too  much  fear  is  an  enemy  to  good  deliber- 
ation. 4.  Virtuous  youth  brings  forth  accomplished  and 
flourishing  manhood.  5.  Milton,  the  author  of  Paradise 
Lost,  was  deeply  versed'^  in  ancient  learning. 
ModJGed  by  Clauses. 

Subject.  —  1.  They  who  are  sot  to  rule  over  others,  must 
be  just.  2.  There  was  one  clear,  shining  star,  that  used 
to  come  out  into  the  sky  before  the  rest,  near  the  church 
spire,  above  the  graves.  3.  The  disputes  between  the 
majority  which  supported  the  mayor,  and  the  minority 
headed  by  the  magistrates,  had  repeatedly  run  so  high 
that  bloodshed  seemed  inevitable. 

Predicate.  —  1.  Heaven  has  imprinted,  in  the  mother's 
face,  something  that  claims  kindred  with  the  skies.  2.  I 
was  assured  that  he  would  return.  3.  We  found,  in  our 
rambles,  several  pieces  of  flint  which  the  Indians  had  once 
used  for  arrow-heads. 

Invertei  and  Elliptical  Constrnctions. 

1.  In  every  grove  warbles  the  voice  of  love  and  pleas- 
ure. 2.  Bursts  the  wild  cry  of  terror  and  dismay.  3.  LLow 
wonderfully  are  we  made  I 


264  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Write.    2.  Sweet  the  pleasure.     3.  Here  the  wigwam 
blaze  beamed  on  the  tender  and  helpless. 
4.  "Where  's  thy  true  treasure  ?  "  Gold  says,  "Not  in  me"; 
And,  "  Not  in  me,"  the  Diamond.     Gold  is  poor  ! 

3.  Supply  children.  Or  say.  Tender  and  he/plefss  are  atljeclivcs,  relating  to  some 
noun  un(lerst(K)il  that  denotes  persons  ;  and  they  are  also  used  as  a  noun,  because  they 
represent  the  nouu  understood,  — and  hence  of  the  com.  g  ,  3J  p  ,  pi.  n.,  etc. 

Infinitive  Phrases  used  as  Subjects. 

1.  To  relieve  the  poor  is  our  duty.  2.  To  pay  as  you 
go,  is  the  safest  way  to  fortune.  3.  To  have  advanced 
much  farther  without  supplies,  would  have  been  dangerous. 

Sometimes  we  find  also  participial  phrases  used  as  subjects  ;  but  clauses  or  infinitive 
phrases  are  generally  preferable  to  such  constructions. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

Unknown  to  them,  when  sensual  pleasures  cloy. 
To  till  the  languid  pause  with  finer  joy. 
Clauses  used  as  Subjects. 
1.  That  the  earth  is  round,  is  now  well  known.    2.  TIow 
the  soul  is  connected  with  the  body,  is  a  great  mystery. 
3.  "Dust  Ihou  art,  to  dust  returnest/'  was  not  written 
of  the  soul. 

Compound  Subjects  and  Predicates. 

Compound  Subjects. 

1.  Patience  and  perseverance  can  remove  mountaiiis. 

2.  Either  James  or  Henry  is  talking.    3.  His  magnificence, 

his  taste,  his  classical  learning,  his  high  spirit,  and  the 

suavity  of  his  manners,  were  admitted  even  by  his  enemies. 

2.  A  sentence  of  this  'kind  can  be  considered  compound,  by  supplyinpr  another  predi- 
cate ;  but  it  is  more  common  to  say  simply  that  the  subject  is  compound.  Wh^n  in 
parsing,  however,  a  distinct  predicate  must  be  furnished  to  each  nominative,  then  the 
Beiitencp,  not  the  subject,  should  be  considered  conipmnd  ;  as,  "  You  or  he  is  to  bo 
b'amed."    "  The  best  books,  not  the  cheapest,  should  be  our  object." 

1.  To  remain  and  to  advance  were  equally  dangerous. 
2.  To  fight  that  night,  or  to  retreat,  was  the  only  alterna- 
tive left.     3.  To  hope  and  strive  is  the  way  to  thrive. 

3.  To  hope,  and  utrive  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subj  'ct-nnmin^tive.  To  hope  is 
In  ptrt  the  subject  of  is.  Is  agrees  with  to  hope  and  to  strive  conjointly,  taken  as  one 
thing. 

Clauses. 
That  he  should  take  offense  at  such  a  trifle,  that  he 


ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  265 

should  write  an  article  about  it,  and  that  he  should  then 
publish  it,  surprised  us  all. 

Clausal  Phrases. 

The  wit  whose  vivacity  condemns  slower  tongues  to 
silence,  the  scholar  whose  knowledge  allows  no  man  to 
fancy  that  he  instructs  him,  the  critic  who  suffers  no  fal- 
lacy to  pass  undetected,  and  the  reasQuer  who  condemns 
the  idle  to  thought  and  the  negligent  to  attention,  are 
generally  praised  and  feared,  reverenced  and  avoided. 
Compound  Predicates. 

1.  lie  rose,  reigned,  and  fell.  2.  Slowly  and  sadly  they 
climb  the  distant  mountains,  and  read  their  doom  in  the 
setting  sun. 

3.  The  rose  had  been  washed,  just  washed  in  a  shower. 

Which  Mary  to  Anna  conveyed  ; 
A  delicate  moisture  encumbered  the  jQower, 
And  weighed  down  its  beautiful  head. 

4.  Glass  is  impermeable  to  water,  admits  the  light  and 
excludes  the  wind,  is  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining 
the  most  lustrous  colors,  is  susceptible  of  the  finest  polish, 
can  be  carved  or  sculptured  like  stone  or  metal,  never 
loses  a  fraction  of  its  substance  by  constant  use,  and  is  so 
insensible  to  the  action  of  acids  that  it  is  employed  by 
chemists  for  purposes  to  which  no  other  substance  could 
be  applied. 

ADJECTIVE  MODIFIERS. 

(SUBSTANTITB  MODIFIERS.) 

1.  Articles. 
1.  A  church  standi  on  the  adjoining  hill.     2.  A  states- 
man's character  should  be  an  honor  to  his  country. 
Elliptical  and  Peculiar  Constructions. 
1.  A  man  and  woman  were  drowned.     2.  He  bought  a 
house  and  lot.     3.  A  river  runs  between  the  old  and  the 
new  mansion.      4.  A  great  many  adjectives  are  derived 
from  nouns.     5.  Peter  the  Great  is  the  pride  of  Russia. 

12 


260  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Adjectives. 
1.  This  little  twig  bore  that  large  red  apple.  2.  Green 
fields  and  forests  were  before  us.  3.  A  swilt  and  limpid 
rivulet  purled  over  the  pebbles.  4.  He  used  very  forcible 
but  courteous  language.  5.  Two  plum-trees,  radiant  with 
white  blossoms  on  every  bough,  overtop  the  garden  wall. 
6.  The  whole  world  swarms  with  life,  animal  and  vege- 
table. 

1.  Apple  is  modified  by  red  ;  red  apple,  by  large  ;  and  large  red  apple,  by  that. 

2.  Green  belongs  to  bothjields  -Aad  forests. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  It  was  a  bright  morning,  soft  and  balmy.  2.  Calm, 
attentive,  and  cheerful,  he  confutes  more  gracefully  than 
others  compliment.  3.  Then  followed  a  long,  a  strange, 
a  glorious  conflict  of  genius  against  power.  4.  Violets 
meek  and  jonquils  sweet  she  chose. 

2.  The  dependent  clause,  than  others  compliment,  limits,  determines,  or  completes 
the  comparison  ;  or  it  moitifies  the  phrase  more  gracefully,  l»y  showing  the  mannex-  and 
degree.  3.  Supply  conflict ;  and  put  each  conflict,  after  the  first,  in  apposition  with 
the  first. 

3.  Fossessives. 

1.  John's  horse  is  in  our  garden.  2.  Gen.  George 
Washington's  residence  was  on  the  Potomac.  3.  Soft 
blows  the  breeze  o'er  India's  coral  strand. 

Elliptical  and  Peculiar  Constructions. 

1.  I  will  wait  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller.'  2.  I  will  wait 
at  Smith^  the  bookseller's.'  3.  Lcwis^  and  Hay  mend' k^ 
factory  was  burned.  4.  This  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's.  6.  That  head  of  j'ours  has  many  strange  fan- 
cies in  it.     G.  The  bard  of  Lomond's  lay  is  done. 

5.  Yours,  an  idiom  ;  equivalent  to  your  posftrs^ion — See  p.  221. 

6.  Bard  ('s>  is  govtraed  by  lai/,  and  Lomond  ('s)  by  of. 

4.  Appositivo  or  Explanatory  Expressions. 
Nouns  and  Pronouns. 
1.  Thou,  thou,'  art  the  man.     2.  I  myself  was  present. 
3.    The    nurse,   that  ancient  lady,   preached    t^ecorum. 


ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  267 

4.  There  is  but  one  God,  the  author,  the  creator,  and  the 
governor  of  the  world  ;  almighty,  eternal,  and  incompre- 
hensible.    5.  Thou  sun,  both  eye  and  soul  of  the  world. 

6.  A  cove,  or  inlet,  divides  the  island.  7.  As  a  writer, 
ho  has  ihw  equals.  8.  Madame  de  Stael  calls  beautiful 
architecture  frozen  music.  9.  Messrs.  William  and  Robert 
Bailey  were  conversing  with  the  Misses  Barnes.  10.  Two 
things  a  man  should  never  fret  about ;  what  he  can  help, 
and  what  he  can  not  help.  11.  The  saint,  the  father,  and 
the  husband  prays.  12.  You  are  too  humane  and  consid- 
erate ;  things  few  people  can  be  charged  with. 

8.  Cafffi  Is  inndine.l  hy  beanfiful  arckittr.ture  frozen  muxrc.  ns  the  entire  object; 
and  by  architecture  'A*  the  simple  oliject.  Music  is  put  in  apposition  with  architect- 
ure, and  is  {mrtially  governed  hy  cal/.i. 

9.  fVilliam  {Haley)  and  Robt-rt  Bailey  are  put  in  apposition  with  Messrs.}  but 
JV/mev  Liames  is  best  p  irsed  as  one  noun. 

12.  Thnigs,  nominative,  in  opposition  with  the  adjectives  humane  and  considerate  } 
Kcmai'k  uader  Uuie  VII.    Supply  which  as  the  object  otwith. 

Infinitive  Phrases. 
1.  It  is  foolish  to  lay  out  money  in  a  purchase  of  repent- 
ance.    2.  It  is  our  duty  to  be  friendly  toward  mankind, 
as  much  as  it  is  our  interest  that  mankind   should   be 
friendly  toward  us. 

1.  It,  with  the  explanatory  infinitive  phrase,  to  lay  out  money,  etc.,  is  the  entire  sub- 
ject ;  and  it  is  the  subject-nominative.  It  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to  lay  out  money, 
etc..  as  the  entire  appositivo  or  explanatory  phrase  }  and  by  the  infinitive  to  lay,  as  the 
simple  appositive. 

Clauses. 

1.  It  is  through  inward  health,  that  we  enjoy  all  out- 
ward things.  2.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  imagined,  how  soon 
the  mind  sinks  to  a  level  with  its  condition.  3.  Study  is 
at  least  valuable  for  this  -i—  that  it  makes  man  his  own 
companion. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Child  of  the  Sun^  refulgent  Summer  comes.  2.  Thy- 
self shalt  see  the  act.  3.  This  monument  is  itself '^^ the 
orator  of  this  occasion.  4.  I  sold  them  for  a  dollar  a  pair.' 
6.  One  by  one  the  moments  fly.     6.  They  had  one  each- 


268        ^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Y.  He  thought  it  an  honor  to  do  so.     8.  Strange  that  a 
harp  of  thousand  strings  should  keep  in  tune  so  long. 

2.  Tt>ou  thyself.  4.  I  sold  tht;m,  e:ich  pair  for  a  dollar.  5.  One  by  one.  vavxht  &lso 
be  consi  lered  a-i  sidverbial  piirase.  7.  Hj  thou^'ht  it,  to  do  so,  an  honor.  To  do  so  is 
in  apposition  with  ?t.  Honor  is  also  in  apposition  with  it }  but  it  is,  besides,  partially 
governed  by  thoajht.    8.  It  is  sirauge,  etc. 

6.  Participles. 
1.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again.  2,  The 
deer,  seeing  me,  fled.  3.  The  wolf,  being  much  exasper- 
ated by  the  wound,  sprang  upon  the  horse.  4.  There  are 
twenty-six  senators,  distinguished  for  their  wisdom,  not 
elevated  by  popular  favor,  but  chosen  by  a  select  body  of 
n^en.  6.  The  blast  seemed  to  bear  away  the  sound  of  the 
voice,  permitting  nothing  to  be  heard  but"  its  own  wild 
howling,  mingled  with  the  creaking  and  the  rattling  of  the 
cordage,  and  the  hoarse  thunder  of  the  surges,  striving 
like  savage  beasts  for  our  destruction. 

Inverted. 
6.  Close  beside  her,  faintly  moaninjr,  fair  and  younp:,  a  soldier  lay, 

Torn  with  shot  and  pierced  with  lances,  bleeding;  slow  his  life  away. 
6.  This  is  one  of  tlie  sentences  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what  makes  the  sub- 
j^ot,  and  what  makes  th«  i)rfdicate  Perhaps  the  division  is  pr  tptrly  made  thus  :  A  sol- 
dier, fair  and  young,  torn  with  shot  and  pierced  with  lances,  \  'ay  close  beside  her, 
faintly  moaning,  and  slowly  bleedinj  away  his  life.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  de- 
termine wlK'ther  an  adjunct,  an  adjective  phrase,  a  participial  phrase,  or  an  infiuitive 
phrase,  should  be  referi'ed  to  the  subject  or  to  the  predicate.  —  See  p.  232. 

6.  Infinitives. 
1.  Contributions  to  relieve  the  sufferers  were  sent  in. 
2.  The  book  to  be  adopted  by  us  should  be  compared 
with  others  of  the  same  kind.  3.  Persuade  Mary  to  let 
him  have  his  books.  4.  Let  us  have  some  of  these  clams 
cooked  for  supper. 

4.  Cooked  is  rather  the  present  passive  infinitive  than  the  perfect  passive  participle. 
If  the  clams  were  already  cooked,  then  it  would  be  the  participle. 

7.  Adjuncts. 
Simple. 

1.  The  roar  of  the  lion  was  heard.  2.  She  bought  a 
house  with  its  furniture.  3.  The  promises  of  Hope  are 
sweeter  than  roses  in  the  bud,  and  far  more  flattering  to 


ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.  269 

expectation.     4.  The  sailors  did  not  like  the  idea  of  being 

treated  so.     5.  There  is  a  flower  about  to  bloom.     6.  The 

question  of  who  is  to  lead  them,  was  next  discussed* 

Complex. 

1.  A  Gothic  cathedral  is  a  blossoming  in  stone,  subdued 

by  the  insatiable  desire  of  harmony  in  man.     2.  The  gold 

in  a  piece  of  quartz  from  the  mines  of  California,  weighed 

several  pounds. 

Compound. 

1.  The  large  elm  between  the  house  and  the  river  seems 
to  be  the  king  of  the  forest.  2.  Brazil  is  regarded  as  a 
land  of  mighty  rivers  and  virgin  forests,  palm-trees  and 
jaguars,  anacondas  and  alligators,  howling  monkeys  and 
screaming  parrots,  diamond-mines,  revolutions,  and  earth- 
quakes. 

8.  Clauses. 

1.  The  man  who  sows  his  field,  trusts  in  God.  2.  Self- 
denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make.  3.  We 
encamped  by  a  limpid  rivulet,  that  purled  over  the  peb- 
bles. 4.  He  paid  more  for  the  flowers  and  gems  which  he 
brought,  than  they  are  worth.  6.  'Tis  the  land  where  the 
orange  and  citron  grow.  6.  There  is  plain  proof  that^*  he 
is  guilty.  7.  The  man  with  whom  love  is  a  sentiment, 
ever  yearns  for  a  home  of  his  own.    8.  Get  what  is  needed. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him    declare   I  unto 

you.      2.  We  have  no  such  laws  as   those  by  which  he 

was  tried  in  the  State  from  which  he  came.     3.  'T  is  the 

land  I  love. 

Abridged. 

She  turned,  —  a  reddening  rose^  in  bud, 

Its  calyx  half  withdrawn,  — 
Her  cheek  on  fire  with  damasked  blood 

Of  girlhood's  glowing  dawn  !  —  Holmes. 

Its  calyx  half  withdrawn  is  an  absolute  phrase,  used  here  in  the  sense  of  a  relative 
clause  describing  rose.  Her  cheek  [being]  onjire,  etc.,  is  an  absolute  phrase,  used 
here  for  an  adverbial  clause  of  manner  or  cause,  and  modifying  turned. 


270  ENGLISH    GRAiMMAR. 

ADVERBIAL  MODIFIERS. 

(Predicate  Modifiers.) 

1.   Objectives. 
Nouns    and    Pronouns. 

1.  Birds  Iruild  nests.  2.  The  soil  produces  corn,  hemp, 
tobacco,  wheat,  and  grass.  3.  Here  we  saw  green  fields, 
groves  of  ancient  oak,  and  happy  homes  embowered  in 
tufts  of  shade.  4.  The  hurricane  even  tore  down  enclos- 
ures that  had  been  lately  made,  trees  that  had  stood  for 
ages,  and  mansions  that  had  been  built  of  stone.  6.  Sho 
gave  what  she  could  not  sell. 

Infinitives  and  Participles. 

1.  I  like  to  study.  2.  AYc  preferred  to  remain  at  home, 
and  learn  our  lessons.  3.  He  intended  to  move  to  the 
West,  to  purchase  him  a  farm,  and  to  end  his  days  on  it 
in  peace  and  quiet.  4.  He  knew  not  what  to  say.  5.  After 
such  a  hint,  I  could  not  avoid  offering  her  mj'"  assistance, 
and  regretting  my  apparent  want  of  gallantry. 
Clauses. 

1.  I  believe  that  he  is  honest  and  industrious.  2.  Every 
one  must  have  noticed  how  much  more  amiable  some  chil- 
dren are  than  others.  3.  She  saw  that  we  were  tired,  and 
needed  some  refreshment.  4.  Tell  us  not,  sir,  that  we  are 
weak,  unable  to  cope  with  so  formidable  an  adversary. 
5.  They  said  that  Halifax  loved  the  dignity  and  emolu- 
ment of  office,  that  while  he  continued  to  be  president  it 
would  be  impossible  for  him  to  put  forth  his  whole  strength 
against  the  government,  and  that  to  dismiss  him  would  be 
to  set  him  free  from  all  restraint.     G.  Who  can  tell  who 

he  is  ? 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Me  glory  summons  to  the  martial  scene.  2.  Him 
well  I  knew,  and  every  truant  knew.  3.  I  have  nothing 
to  say.      4.  "  Trifles/'  said  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds    "  make 


ANALYSIS  AND  PARSING.         '  271 

perfection ;  but  perfection  is  no  trifle.''  5.  0  that  those 
lips  had  language  I  C.  Heaven  hides  from  brutes  what 
men,  from  men  what  spirits,  know.  7.  Teach  mo  my  own 
defects  to  scan ;  what  others  are,  to  feel ;  and  know  myself 
a  man. 

3.  Supply  that  I  ivish^  or  which  I  am  able,  or  which  it  is  proper  for  me ,'  or  else 
parsa  to  say  accorJiiijj  to  §  401. 

2.  Predicate   Substantives. 
Nouns  and  Pronouns. 

1.  He  is  a  farmer.  2.  She  was  appointed  governess. 
8.  Man  is  a  bundle  of  habits  and  relations.  4.  Ilis  daily 
teachers  had  been  woods  and  rills.  5.  This  aunt  Betsy^ 
was  the  neatest  and  most  eflScient  piece  of  human  machin- 
ery that  ever  operated  in  forty  places  at  once.  6.  A  poor 
relation  is  the  most  irrelevant  thing  in  nature,  an  odious 
approximation,  a  haunting  conscience,  a  perpetually  re- 
curring mortification,  a  drawback  on  your  rising,  a  stain 
in  your  blood,  a  drain  on  your  purse,  and  a  more  intoler- 
able drain  on  your  pride.     T.  It  is  wo  who  are  Ilamlet. 

8.  I  shall  be  all  anxiety,  till  I  know  what  his  plans  are. 

9.  "  Shall  we  not  wait  for  Decius  ?  —  No ;  were  he  ten 
times  Decius."  10.  I  knew  it  to  be  him.  11.  He,  being 
a  partner^  was  called  in  as  a  witness.  12.  lie  is  tired  of 
being  a  loafer^- 

13.  She  looks  a  goddess,  and  she  walks  a  queen. — Dryden. 

12.  When  a  governiug  word  cuts  off  one  substantive  from  the  other,  Rule  VII  can  not 
be  applied. 

Infinitives  and  Participles. 

1.  To  venture  in  was  to  die.  2.  The  best  way  to  pre- 
serve health  is  to  be  careful  about  diet  and  exercise. 
3.  The  great  object  of  all  knowledge  is  to  enlarge  and 
purify  the  soul.  4.  There  is  nothing  like  facts  ;  seeing  is 
believing.  5.  It  was  being  idle  that  made  mo  miserable. 
Clauses. 

1.  My  impression  is,  that  you  will  succeed.  2.  The  law 
should   be,  that  he  who  can  not  read  should  not  vote. 


272  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  excuse  was,  that  the  army  had  not  been  well  enough 
equipped,  and  that  the  roads  were  too  bad. 
4.  It  is  not  that  my  lot  is  low, 

That  bids  the  silent  tear  to  flow ; 

It  is  not  grief  that  bids  me  moan, 

It  is  that  I  am  all  alone. 

4.  The  relative  that,  of  the  second  line,  relates  to  the  clause  that  my  lot  is  low,  as 
its  antecedent,  or  to  it.  —  See  p.  298. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  A  joy  thou  art,  and  a  wealth,  to  all.  2.  We  stand  the 
latest,  and,  if  we  fall,  the  last,  experiment  of  self-govern- 
ment. 

3.  The  moss  his  bed,  the  cave  his  humble  cell; 
Ilia  food  the  fruits,  his  drink  the  crystal  well. 

3.  Predicate  Adjectives. 
1.  You  are  studious.  2.  Her  countenance  looked  mild 
and  gentle.  3.  The  question  now  before  Congress  is  prac- 
tical as  death,  enduring  as  time,  and  high  as  human  destiny. 
4.  Blennerhasset  is  described  as  having  been  amiable  and 
refined,  and  a  passionate  lover''  of  music.  5.  To  bleach  is 
to  make  white.  6.  Correct  the  heart,  and  all  will  go  right. 
7.  To  be  poor  is  more  honorable  than  to  be  dishonorably 
rich.  8.  There  is  no  way  of  being  loved  but  by  being 
amiable. 

4.  When  a  participle  is  thus  construed  with  an  adjective,  call  the  participle  a  parti- 
cipial adjjctive.    8.  Except  to  be  loved  by  being  amiable. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Lovely  art  thou,  0  Peace !  2.  Deep  in  the  sea  is  a 
coral  grove.  3.  Large,  glossy,  and  black  hung  the  beauti- 
ful fruit.  4.  Green  's  the  sod,  and  cold  the  clay.  6.  0 
vain  to  seek  delight  in  earthly  things. 

4.  Adverbs. 
Verbs  Modified.  —  1.  lie  spoke  eloquently.     2.  The  net 
was  curiously  woven.     3.  The   bird  flew  rapidly  away. 
4.  What  he  did,  he  did  patiently,  accuratelj^  and  thor- 
oughly.   5.  His  heart  went  pit-a-pat.    6.  Do  not  aim  low. 


ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING.  273 

Adjectives  Modified.  —  1.  The  work  is  very  useful.  2.  The 
well  is  deep  enough.  3.  How  various,  how  animated,  how 
full  of  interest,  is  the  survey  I  4.  I  had  never  seen  any 
thing  quite  so  beautiful  before. 

Adverbs  Modified. — 1.  We  marched  rather  slowly.  2.  You 
have  come  altogether  too  soon.  3.  The  car  runs  not  quite 
fast  enough. 

Adverbial  Clauses. 

1.  The  child  seemed  to  recline  on  its  mother's  bosom, 
as  some  infant  blossom  on  its  parent  stem.  2.  The  cottage 
stood  where  the  mountain  shadows  fell  when  the  sun  was 
declining.  3.  Remember,  while  you  are  deliberating,  the 
season  now  so  favorable  may  pass  away,  never  to  return. 
5.  When  misfortunes  overtake  you,  when  sickness  assails 
you,  and  when  friends  forsake  you,  religion  will  be  your 
greatest  comfort.  5.  The  farther  we  went,  the  worse  wo 
fared.     G.  As  j^ou  sow,  so  you  shall  reap. 

6  Qhsorve  that  not  the  sowin<r,  but  the  reaping,  is  described.  j4s  Is  a  conjunctive  ad- 
verb that  joins  its  clause  to  iha'l  reap  to  express  manner,  aocoriins;  to  Notf  VI.  Or  say, 
An  is  an  advirb  of  niann?r,  modifyinsj  f^ow  accorflin!]^  to  Rule  XIII  •,  and  it  is  a'so  a  or- 
responfliii!^  conju-iction  relating  to  so,  and  connecting  two  clauses  accordiug  to  llule  XV. 
Parse  so  in  a  similar  manner. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical* 

1.  Up  soars  the  lark,  the  lyrical  poet  of  the  sky.  2.  Here, 
all  is  confusion  ;  there,  all  is  order  and  beauty.  3.  Wheix 
young,  life's  journey  I  began. 

4.  The  blessed  to-day  is  as  completely  so, 
As  who  began  three  thousand  year?  ago. 

The  man  blessed  to-day as  ho  who,  etc. 

5.   Participles. 
1.  lie  walks  limping.     2.  They  lay  concealed.     3.  lie 
went  on  his  way  rejoicing.     4.  Now  the  bright  morning 
star,  day's  harbinger,  comes  dancing  from  the  cast. 
5.  The  scythe  lies  glittering  in  the  dewy  wreath 
Of  tedded  grass,  mingled  with  fading  flowers, 
That  yester-morn  bloomed  waving  in  the  breeze. 


274  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

e.  Infinitives. 

Ferbs  Itfodfjled. —  1.  The  child  secmefl  to  sleep.  2.  She 
was  supposed  to  bo  rich.  3.  He  was  known  to  h.ive  as- 
sisted the  editor.  4.  To  curb  him,  to  stand  up  against 
him,  we  want  arms  of  the  same  kind. 

Adjectives  Modified.  —  1.  She  is  rather  young  to  go  to 
school.  2.  It  is  a  thing  not  easy  to  be  done.  3.  Pope 
was  not  content  to  please  ;  he  desired  to  excel,  and  there- 
fore always  did  his  best. 

Adverbs  Modified.  —  1.  It  is  too  badly  done  to  last.  2.  It 
was  so  bright  as  to  dazzle  our  eyes.  3.  lie  proceeded  too 
cautiously  to  fall  into  such  a  trap. 

It  ij  probably  best  to  say,  that  as  to  dazzle  our  eyes  modiSes  ito  bright. 

Note  V. — To  say  truth.  Jack  heard 'these  discourses 
with  some  compunction. 

7.  Adjuncts. 

Verbs  Modified.  —  1.  I  am  in  trouble.  2.  Deliver  us  from 
evil.  3.  Religion  dwells  not  in  the  tongue,  but  in  the 
heart.  4.  You  arc  suspected  of  having  been  negligent. 
5.  This  will  depend  on  who  he  is. 

Adjectives  Modified.  —  1.  Let  us  be  watchful  of  our  liber- 
ties. 2.  He  is  indolent  about  every  thing.  3.  They  were 
invincible  in  arms. 

Inverted  and  l!:iliptical. 

1.  By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung.  2.  Come,  go 
with  me  the  jungle  through.  3.  On  that  plain,  in  rosy 
youth,  they  had  fed  their  father's  flocks.  4.  According 
to  some  ancient  philosophers,  the  sun  quenches  his  flames 
in  the  ocean. 

6.  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host,  with  their  banners,  at  sunset  were  seen. 

4.  Supply  To  believe,  etc.  5  for  the  sun  does  not  quench  his  flames  accordins  to  these 
aucieut  plulosopht-ra. 

8.  Clauses. 
\.  We  came  that  we  might  assist  you.     2.  lie  is  afraid 
that  you  will  not  return.    3.  I  am  convinced  that  he  is  right. 

This  class  comprisi-s  a  few  clauses  that  can  not  be  referred  to  any  preceding  class,  and 
that  arc  adjunctive  in  sense. 


QUESTIONS. 


275 


QUESTIOITS   POE   EEVIET7. 


1.  Repeat  the  Rules  of  Syntax. 

2.  Repeat  tae  Nocea. 

3    Uive  the  K^n^fal  Cormula  for  parsing. 

4.  Wtiat  is  Analysis  .'  .        .        .        '\\b7\ 

5.  What  is  Fiirsiug?        .        .        .        572 

6.  How  do  they  diiler? 

7.  What  issaiJ  ofdi.scourse?      .        .  673 

8.  What  other  division  of  discourpe?    6<4 

9.  What  are  the  chief  liiuds  of  prose  ?  bio 

10.  Of  poetry  ? 5/6 

11.  What  else  is  said  of  discourse  ?  577,  5^8 

12.  What  is  a  paragraph  ?     .        .        •  579 

13.  What  is  a  sentence  ?  .        .        .        58 1 

14.  What  is  a  proposition?   .        .        .682 

15.  What  is  a  clause  ?      .        .        .        583 

16.  When  is  a  clause  or  sentence  de- 

clarative ?  —  interrogative .'  —  im- 
perative ?  —  exclamatory  ?    .        .  584 

17.  Into  what  classes  are  sentences  di- 

vided ? 687 

13.  On  what  three  syntactical  relations 

is  Analysis  chiefly  based?        .        589 

19.  AVhat  are  the  elements  of  sentences?  590 

20.  Into  what  six  classes  can  these  be 

divided? 593 

21.  Into  what  can  all  sentences  be  re- 

solved?      591 

22.  What  else  may  a  sentence  have?    •  592 

23.  What  two  chief   words  or    terms 

must  be  in  every  proposition?      594 

24.  What  is  the  subject-noniin.ative?    .  595 

25.  What  is  the  predicate-verb?      .        596 
13.  Of   what    two    parts  must  every 

clause  or  proposition  consist  ?        .  597 

27.  What  is  the  subject?  .        .        598 

28.  What  is  the  predicate  ?  .        .        .699 

29.  How  are  subjects  and  predicates 

classified?         ....        600 

30.  Define  these  classes?      .         .601-604 

31.  What  i-t  a  modifier?        .        .        .605 

32.  What  kinds  <  f  modifiers  are  there  ?  606 

33.  What  is  an  adjectiveor  substantive 

modifier?  ....        607 

34.  Te.l,  so  far  as  yon  can,  by  what  a 

noun  or  pronoun  may  be  modified.  608 

35.  What  is  an  adverl)ial  or  p.edicate 

modifier? 609 

33.  Tell,  .so  far  as  yoti  can,  by  what  a 
finite  vi'rh,  an  infinitive,  or  a  par- 
ticiple can  be  modified?        .        .  610 

87.  What  modifiers  can  adjectives  and 

adverbs  ha  e?  .        .        .        611 

33.  What  more  is  said  of  modifi- 
ers?       .  .        .         612-614 

3D.  What  parts  of  speech  are  never 
mod<fied  ? 

40.  W^hat  parts  of  speech,  then,  can 

have  modifiers? 

41.  What  is  said  of  primary  and  of  sec- 

ondary modifiers? 
•42.  An  infinitive,  used  as  a  noun,  can 

have  what  kind  of  modifiers  .'        .  615 

43.  A  participial  noun  ?   .        .        .        61G 

44.  What  is  said  of  modified  phrases 

and  clauses  ?         .        .        .        ,  617 

45.  What  is  said  of  modify? 


43.  What  is  said  of  the  predicate-verb 

ht? 

47. 

48. 

49. 


619 

620 

621 

623 
6;^4 


Into  what  classes  can  the  pi-edicate 
modifiers  be  divided  ?    . 

W  liat  kiuds  of  words  are  connec- 
tives?         

What  words  or  phrases  are  used  in- 
dependently ?        .        .        .        . 

50.  What  more  is  said  of  them  ? 

51.  From  what  does  a  phrase  or  clause 

usually  take  its  name  ?  .         .  625 

52.  What  is  said  of  phrases,  in  regard  to 

form ,  parsing,  and  analy sis  ?   G26  -  628 

53.  What  is  said  of  clau.ses,  in  regard  to 

form,  parsing,  and  analysis  !   629  - 631 

54.  What  is  said  of  propositions? 

55.  What  is  a  member  of  a  sentence? 
66.  What  is  an  independent  clause  ?  — 

a  principal  clause  ?  —  a  dependent 
or   subordinate    clause?  —  a  co- 
ordinate clause?    ....  632 
57.  What  is  said  of  simple  .sentences?  .  633 
58    What  is  said  of  complex  sentences  ?  635 

59.  Of  compound  sfuteuce.s?     .        638,639 

60.  What  is  said  of  brevity  ?         .        .641 

61.  Of  ellipsis?  ....         642 

62.  Of  abridgment?       .        .        .        .  &43 

63.  How  are  couipound  sentences  con- 

tracted ?  .        .        .         644, 645, 646 

64.  IIow  are  compound  modifiers  cou- 

tracte  1  ? 647 

65.  How  are  simple  sentences  abridged?  648 

66.  What  is  said  of  the  verb  fte,  and  of 

imperative  propositions?         .        649 

67.  What  is  said  of  equivalent  expres- 

sions?     650 

68.  What  is    said    of  the  syntax  of 

abridged  expre8^^ion3?     .        .        651 

69.  IIow  can  the  syntax  of  a  difficult 

word  or  phra.^e  he  frequently  most 
readily  ascertained  ? 

70.  Into  what  are  complex  sentences 

abridged?         ....        652 
71    Which  part  is  usually  abridged  ? 
72.  Into  what  is  an  abridged  substan- 
tive clause  usually  converted  .'      .  6.5.3 
73    An  abridged  adjective  clause  ?    .        654 

74.  An  abridged  adverViial  clause?        T655 

75.  When  a  complex  sentence  is  abridg- 
ed, what  is  the  elTecton  thesubje«'t 

of  the  dependent  clause  !     .      657,  658 

76.  Into  what  can  modifying  phrases 

frequently  be  abridged  ?  .        659 

77.  Wh!it  pace  in  a  sentenjce  i.«  con^iid- 

ered  the  most  important?     .        .631 

78.  When  may  a  subordinate  element 

occupy  the  cnief  place?  .        .        662 

79.  What  is  said  of  transposing  phrases 

and  clauses  ?        .        .      663,  664.  6«-5 

80.  W  iat  is  a  period  ?    .        .        .        .688 

81.  State  how  sentenf es  should  )>3  ana- 

lyzed.   Page  262. 

82.  State    how    each    part    of   speech 

should  be  parsed. 

83.  Which  of  the  five  parts  of  errammar 

are  used  in  Analysis  and  Parsing  ? 


PART   V. 

•WORDS   IIVLlPROIPJariLY    convEBiis-ED. 


FALSE    SYNTAX. 

All  the  errors,  in  the  use  of  language,  can  be  reduced 
to  four  heads :  — 

1.  Too  Many  Words. 

2.  Too  Few  Words. 

3.  Improper  Word  or  Expression. 

4.  Improper  Arrangement  of  Words. 

1.    TOO  MANY  WORDS. 
G'Cncral  RrJo  I.  —  No  needless  word  should  be  used. 

This  here  is  my  scat.*     That  there  is  your  place. 

I  have  got  to  go.     You  have  got  to  stay. 

She  is  a  poor  widow  woman.   lie  died  in  less  than  twc  hours  time. 

You  had  n't  ought  to  do  it.     He  had  n't  ought  to  go. 

Had  I  have  been  there,  I  would  have  gone  with  them. 

Had  I  have  known  it,  I  could  have  sent  yesterday. 

His  two  sisters  were  both  of  them  well  educated. 

I  bought  it  of  the  bookseller,  him  who  lives  opposite. 

The  neck  connects  the  head  and  trunk  together. 

He  went  away  about  the  latter  end  of  the  week. 

You  will  never  have  another  such  a  chance. 

*  W3  shall  not  encumber  the  following  exercisess  with  formulas.  Surely  the  teacher. 
If  at  all  competent,  can  shi.w  ihe  student  how  to  correct  the  sentences  in  a  clear  a:icl 
sensibla  mann  r.  As  a  general  rule,  the  pupil  should  first  say  that  the  sentcncj  \i  in- 
corr'Ct;  h';  should  then  slate  in  what  respect  it  is  wranir,  make  the  necessary  correction, 
ami  }r've  his  reasons  for  the  change.     Listly,  he  may  read  the  correcte  1  sciitonoe. 

Formerly,  arithmetic  was  tau,'ht  chiefly  by  arbitrary  rules  co^imittcd  to  memory. 
Since  thj  introduction  of  mental  arithmetic  into  schools,  pupil?  h.ave  been  taught  to 
reason  out  problems  by  relying  rather  on  themselves  for  logic  &'.iu  kauguage.  Caa  cot 
a  similar  mode  of  iostructioa  be  applied  to  false  syatax? 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  277 

There  are  but  a  few  otTier  similar  places  in  tbe  city. 

What  is  used  for  that  and  which.     (Omit  and.) 

It  is  equally  as  good  as  the  other.   Mine  is  equally  as  good  as  yours. 

The  correlatives  as  and  as  themselves  imply  equality.  —  See  p.  186. 

M^ho  first  discovered  America  ?  When  the  world  was  first  created,  etc. 

For  his  avoiding  that  disaster,  he  is  indebted  to  you. 

In  their  discussing  of  the  subject,  they  became  angry. 

He  knows  the  lesson,  but  you  do  not  know  the  lesson. 

Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits  will  reward  all  our  toils,  and  will 

produce  effects  beyond  our  calculation. 
This  is  taught  by  Plato;    but  it  is  taught  still  better  by  Solomon 

than  hif  Mm.     Most  is  annexed  to  the  end  of  these  words. 
Our  flowers  are  covered  over.     I  was  not  able  for  to  do  it. 
I  borrowed  the  knife  for  to  sharpen  my  pencil. 
For  was  formerly  used  before  the  inanitive  ;  but  it  should  not  be  used  so  now. 

Where  is  William  at  ?   Their  situation  can  hardly  be  conceived  of. 
My  father  presented  me  with  a  new  knife. 

A  very  common  error.  —  He  did  not  present  me,  but  the  knife.    Omit  with. 
Mr.  C.  S.  Bushnell,  of  New    Haven,  has   presented   the   divinity 
school  toilh  five  thousand  dollars.  —  iV.  Y.  Times. 

Say,  —  "  has  presented  five  thousand  dollars  to  ths  divinity  school." 

The  emotion  is  at  last  awakened  by  the  accidental  in  stead  of  by 

the  necessary  antecedi'nt. —  U'a//land. 

Omit  the  second  bi/ .  "  la  a  horizontal  in  stead  of  a  perpendicular  direction." —  Everett. 

It  is  to  you  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  this  favor. 

The  pronoun  it  needs  you  for  its  predicate-nominative  ;  and  therefore  to  should  bo  re- 
jected. 

It  is  to  this  last  feature  of  the  game  laws,  to  which  we  intend  to 

confine  our  notice.  —  Sidney  Smith. 

Our  debts  and  our  sins  are  generally  greater  than  we  think /or. 

At  about  what  time  will  you  come  ? 

The  performance  was  approved  of  by  all  who  saw  it. 

From  thence  we  sailed  to  Liverpool.    From  whence  it  came  I  know  not. 

Hence,  thenre,  and  whence,  imply /rom,  which  therefore  becomes  superfluous  wheq 
inserted  before  any  of  these  \\  r>"d3. 

Whenever  he  sees  me,  ho  always  inquires  after  my  health, 
lie  then  told  us  how  that  he  had  always  been  a  Union  man. 

The  carol  they  began  that  hour, 

How  that  a  life  was  [is]  but  a  flower,  —  Shakespeare, 
The  carol,  tiiat  a  life  is  but  a  flower,  etc. 


278  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

I  have  no  doubt  hut  that  he  will  come. 

He  never  doubts  but  that  he  knows  their  intcnlion.  —  Trench. 
This  barbarous  custom,  and  which  prevailed  everywhere,  the  mis- 
sionaries have  abolished. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  a  connectinff  wonl,  an-!  therefore  does  not  allow  and  hftween  it- 
self and  the  autecedc-ut,  except  wbeu  the  and  is  ueeded  to  juia  ouc  relative  clause  to  an- 
other. 

The  distinguishing  excellence  of  Virgil,  and  which  he  possessed 
above  all  others  [other  poetsj,  is  tenderness.  —  Blair. 

If  I  mistake  not,  I  think  I  have  seen  you  before. 

Her  tears  dropped  and  fell  upon  the  face  of  her  dying  and  expiring 
babe.     A  little  flowing  rivulet.     Mr.  Henry  Felton,  Esq. 

A  name  shouM  not  stand  between  two  titles,  when  the  greater  title  implies  the  less  ? 
but  a  name  can  have  two  or  more  titles,  wheu  one  does  not  uecossarily  imply  the  other ; 
as,  Rev.  Dr.  Lothrop. 

Under  Paragraph  482.    "We  made  her  to  believe  it. 
If  I  bid  you  to  study,  dare  you  to  be  idle. 
To  go  I  could  not.     You  need  not  to  have  staid. 
Make  me  to  understand  the  way  of  thy  precepts. 

Special   Eules. 

1.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  arkled  to  its  antecedent, 
when  ths  antecedent  alone  would  express  the  meaning 
better. 

John  he  went,  and  Mary  she  went ;  but  the  rest  they  all  staid  at 
home.  Henry  Barton  his  book.  (Apply  also  Rule  HI.)  IMary  John- 
son her  book.  These  lots,  if  they  had  been  sold  sooner,  they  would 
have  brought  a  better  price.  Tiiese  wild  horses  having  been  once 
captured,  they  were  soon  tamed.  It  is  indisputably  true,  his  asser- 
tion ;  though  it  seems  erroneous. 

2.  When  two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirma- 
tive, only  one  of  them  should  be  used  to  express  denial. 

I  will  never  do  so  no  more.     We  did  n't  find  nobody  at  home. 
Change  also  any  word  of  the  sentence,  wheu  it  is  necessary  to  do  so. 

I  don't  know  nothing  about  your  affairs  ;  and  I  don't  want  to  know. 
I  never  said  nothing  about  it  to  nobody. 
Death  never  spared  no  one.     She  will  never  grow  no  taller. 
I  sha'n't  go,  I  don't  think.     (Change  the  sentence.) 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  279 

This  England  never  did,  nor  never  shall, 

Lie  at  the  proud  foot  of  a  conqueror.  —  Shakespeare. 

Neither  you  nor  nobody  else  can  walk  ten  miles  in  one  hour. 

No  banker,  brewer,  nor  merchant,  wanted  a  partner.  —  Newspaper » 

3.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be 
ftvoided. 

The  oflicc  could  not  hive  been  pven  to  a  more  worthier  man. 
A  farmer's  lifo  is  the  most  happiest. 
She  is  the  most  loveliest  one  of  the  sisters. 
She  seemed  more  lovelier  to  me  than  ever  before.  —  Croly. 
The  lesser  quantity  I  remove  to  the  other  side. 
The  ending  ct^  of  the  comparative  degree,  is  equivalent  to  the  word  more, 

^Nothing  can  be  more  worse  —  worser. 

Those  were  the  lea?t  happiest  years  of  my  life. 

This  was  the  most  unwisest  thing  you  could  have  done. 

4.  The  article  is  commonly  omitted,  — 

1.  '\Then  a  word  is  u^ed  merely  as  a  title. 

2.  When  a  word  is  spoken  of  merely  as  a  word  or  name. 

3.  "When  we  refer  to  the  kind  generally,  or  to  only  a  part 
indefinitely. 

Santa  Anna  now  assumed  the  title  of  a  Dictator. 

The  original  signification  of  knave  was  a  boy. 

The  ancients  supposed  the  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  and  the  fire,  to 

be  the  elements  of  all  material  things. 
What  kind  of  a  man  is  he  ?     What  sort  of  a  thing  is  it  ? 

A  kind  or  sort  is  comprised  in  the  general  class,  rather  than  in  a  single  object 
I  have  had  a  dull  »ort  of  n  headache  all  day. 

The  Tennessee  and  the  Mississippi  are  names  from  the  Indian  tongues. 
The  whites  of  America  are  the  descendants  of  the  Europeans. 

5.  When  connected  descriptive  words  refer  to  the 
same  person  or  thing,  the  article  can  generally  be  used 
only  before  the  first  of  the  words. 

A  white  and  a  black  calf  is  one  calf  with  two  colors. 

There  is  another  and  a  better  world. 

My  friend  was  married  to  a  sensible  and  an  amiable  woman. 


280  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB. 

She  is  not  so  good  a  cook  as  a  washerwoman. 

Fire  is  a  better  servant  than  a  master. 

I  am  a  better  arithmetician  than  a  grammarian. 

Everett,  the  patriot,  the  statesman,  and  the  orator,  should  be  invited. 

The  earth  is  a  sphere,  a  globe,  or  a  ball. 

The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  make  the  Bible. 

Bettor :  "  The  Old  Testament  and  the  New  make  the  Bible  "  }  or,  "  The  Old  and  the 
New  Testament  make  the  Bible." 

The  first  and  the  second  pages  were  our  first  lesson. 

The  terror  of  the  Spanish  and  the  French  monarchies.  —  Bolinghroke, 

G.  Do  not  make  transitive  verbs  intransitive,  by  insert- 
ing a  needless  preposition. 
Pharaoh  and  his  host  pursued  after  them. 
We  had  just  entered  into  the  house.     Follow  on  after  us. 
Ilis  estate  will  not  allow  of  such  extravagance. 
If  you  can  wait  till  to-morrow,  I  will  consider  of  it. 
We  entreat  of  thee  to  hear  us.   I  do  not  recollect  of  such  an  instance. 
Many  talented  men  have  deserted  from  the  party. 

7.  Do  not  let  the  same  word,  sound,  or  expression  re- 
cur too  frequently,  nor  in  close  proximity  to  itself. 

The  fault  is  still  worse  when  the  word  is  used  in  different  senses. 

Too  much  of  the  same  sound  frequently  produces  harshness,  and  is  always 
so  unpleasant  to  the  ear  that  the  word  monotony  has  become  a  common  terra 
for  whatever  is  disagreeable  from  excessive  sameness. 

The  subject  of  which  I  shall  now  treat,  is  not  a  subject  of  general 
interest;  but  no  other  subject  is  of  greater  importance  to  the 
subjects  of  this  kingdom. 
Pronouns,  auxiliary  verbs,  and  the  word  so,  are  often  convenient  substitutes. 

Avarice  and  cunning  may  gain  an  estate,  but  avarice  and  cunning 
can  not  gala  friends.     (Substitute  they.) 

A  catalogue  of  the  children  o/'the  public  schools  of  this  city  has  been 
published.     (Substitute  in.) 

John's  friend's  horse  ran  away.    §  278. 

1  believe  that  he  is  the  man  that  I  saw.     (Substitute  tvhnm.) 

One  can  not  imagine  Avhat  a  monotonous  being  one  becomes  if  one 
constantly  remains  turning  one's  self  in  the  circle  of  one's  favor- 
ite notions.     A  person  .  ....  he,  etc. 
Observe  that  the  irregularities  in  the  declension  of  pronouns  give  b«autr  tft  Jsngnage. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  281 

2.    TOO   FEW  WORDS. 

Generel  Rulo  II.  —  No  necessary  word   should  be 

omitted. 

White  sheep  are  much  more  common  than  black, 
lie  does  not  know  you  better  than  John.      (Ambiguous.) 
Lovest  thou  me  more  than  these  ?   You  suppose  him  younger  than  L 
A  squirrel  can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy.  —  Webster. 
He  did  it  for  your  and  my  friend's  welfare. 
Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear  as  well  as  admiration. 
He  had  fled  his  native  land.     lie  was  expelled  the  college. 
What  prevents  us  going  ?     What  use  is  it  to  me  ? 
The  remark  is  worthy  the  man  that  made  it. 
Lly  business  prevented  rae  attending  the  last  meeting. 
She  could  not  refrain  shedding  tears. 
San  Francisco  is  the  other  side  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Out  of  these  modifications  have  sprung  most  complex  modes. 
Say,  —  "  most  of  the,"  etc.  ;  for  otherwise  most  apparently  modifies  complex. 

The  court  of  France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire. 
The  valley  of  the  Amazon  is  perhaps  as  large  as  the  Mississippi. 
Let  us  consider  the  works  of  nature  and  art,  with  proper  attention. 
The  word  depends  on  what  precedes  and  follows.     (Supply  what.') 
She  praises  who  praise  her.     (Object  wanting;  supply  those.) 
AVe  speak  that  we  do  know,    [taken  from  him.  (Supply  ichich  and  Jie.) 
The  privileges  to  which  he  was  entitled,  and  had  long  enjoyed,  were 
An  officer  on  European  and  on  Indian  service  are  in  very  different 

situations.  —  S.  Smith.     (Supply  service  and  one.) 
Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  ac- 
companied by,  the  advantages  of  fortune.  —  Dlair. 

So  jp^at  a  separation  between  two  prepositions  or  other  words  that  govern  the  same 
object,  always  proiluces  a  rtisafrreenble  Iiiatus  in  ilie  sense  ;  therefore  place  the  noun  after 
the  first  i)reposition,  and  the  correspondiug  pronoun  after  the  second. 

He  first  spoke  for,  and  then  voted  against,  the  measure. 

The  freight  was  added  to,  and  very  much  increased,  my  expenses. 

Ho  is  not  now  in  the  condition  he  was.     (Supply  in  ivhich.) 

The  omission  of  a  relative  adjunct  generally  produces  a  disagreeable  gap  in  the  sense. 
Yonder  is  the  place  I  saw  it.     This  is  the  way  it  was  done. 
The  money  has  not  been  used  for  the  purpose  it  was  appropriated. 
I  shall  persuade  others  to  take  the  same  measures  for  their  cure  that 
I  have.    No  man  can  be  more  wretched  than  I.     (Supply  am.) 


282  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

I  never  have  and  never  will  assist  such  a  man. 

They  either  have  or  will  write  to  us  about  the  matter. 

Money  is  scarce,  and  times  hard.     (Supply  are.) 

Allov'able,  by  zeugma  (p.  500)  ;  yet  when  a  verb  or  an  auxiliary  is  omitted  near  a  dif- 
fereixt  form  of  the  sauie  verb  or  auxiliary,  the  attraction  between  the  cxi)re8se(l  verb  and 
the  nominative  of  tlie  omitted  verb  gctieraily  produces  a  disasjreeable  hiatus  in  the  sense. 
In  other  words,  it  is  generally  improper  to  omit  the  verb  when  a  diflereut  forra  of  it  ia 
required. 

The  winter  is  departing,  and  the  wild-geese  flying  northward. 
The  ground  was  covered  with  forests,  and  the  ravines  hidden. 
A  dollar  was  offered  for  it,  but  five  asked. 

I  can  not  go,  but  I  want  to.    I  have  not  subscribed,  nor  do  I  intend  to. 
Allowable  in  the  most  colloquial  style  ;  though  it  is  generally  inelegant  to  let  a  sentence 
end  with  a  word  so  iusiguilicant.    Supply  yo  and  subscribe. 

This  must  be  my  excuse  for  seeing  a  letter  which  neither  inclination 

nox  time  prompted  me  to.  —  Washington. 
We  ought  not  speak  evil  of  others,  unless  it  is  necessary.     §  482. 
It  is  better  live  on  a  little  than  outlive  one's  income. 
This  old  miser  was  never  seen  give  a  cent  to  any  charitable  under- 
rioase  excuse  my  son  for  absence  yesterday.  [taking. 

Allowable  in  the  familiar  style  ;  though  it  is  generally  better  to  Insert  to. 

How  do  you  like  up  here  ?     We  like  right  well  up  here. 
This  is  an  Qrror  common  in  New  England.    Supply  to  live  or  some  other  words. 

Surely  no  man  is  so  infatuated  to  wish  for  a  different  government 

from  that  which  we  have.     Page  186. 
He  is  a  man  of  visionary  notions,  unacquainted  with  the  world,  unfit 

to  live  in  it. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  The  article  the  is  frequently  needed  to  show  that  all 
of  a  class  are  meant ;  and  when  connected  descriptive 
words  refer  to  different  persons  or  things,  an  article  is 
generally  needed  before  each  of  the  words. 

The  Indians  are  descendants  of  the  aborigines  of  this  country, 
^len  who  are  indolent,  generally  complain  of  hard  times. 
A  black  and  white  calf  were  the  only  two  I  saw. 
The  white  and  black  inhabitants  amount  to  several  thousands. 
A  beautiful  stream  flowed  between  the  old  and  new  mansion. 
The  sick  and  wounded  were  left  at  this  place. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  283 

2.  In  comparison,  other^  else,  or  a  similar  word,  must 
sometimes  be  inserted  to  prevent  the  leading  term  from 
being  compared  witli  itself. 

That  tree  overtops  all  the  trees  in  the  forest, 
lie  thinks  he  knows  more  than  anybody. 
Nothing  is  so  good  for  a  sprain  as  cold  water. 
There  is  no  situation  so  good  anywhere. 
No  magazine  is  so  well  written  as  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 
Jacob  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children. 

Noah  and  his  family  outlived  all  the  people  Avho  lived  before  the  flood. 
In  no  case  are  writers  so  apt  to  err  as  in  the  position  of  the  word 
only.  —  Maunder. 

3.  Parts  emphatically  distinguished,  or  to  be  kept  dis- 
tinct in  thought,  should  be  expressed  with  equal  fullness. 

Neither  my  house  nor  orchard  was  injured.     (Supply  m^.) 

Both  the  principal  and  interest  were  paid. 

Neither  the  principal  nor  interest  was  paid. 

The  principal,  as  well  as  interest,  was  paid. 

Not  the  use,  but  abuse,  of  worldly  things,  is  sinful. 

The  hum  of  bees,  and  songs  of  birds,  fell  sweetly  on  the  ear. 

I  would  rather  hear  the  whippoorwill  than  katydid. 

You  must  either  be  quiet,  or  must  leave  the  room. 

God  punishes  the  vices  of  parents,  either  in  themselves  or  children. 

Such  a  relation  as  ought  to  subsist  between  a  principal  and  accessory. 

They  were  rich  once,  but  are  poor  now. 

A  man  may  be  rich  by  chance,  but  can  not  be  good  or  wise  without 

effort. 
He  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen,  and  consequently 

entitled  to  reward, 
lie  is  distinguished  both  as  a  teacher  and  scholar. 

Serial  parts  must  generally  be  expressed  with  equal 
fullness  or  with  uniformity. 

Such  a  law  would  be  injurious  to  the  farmer,  mechanic,  and   the 

merchant. 

Either  use  the  article  but  once,  and  place  it  before  the  first  word,  or  else  use  it  before 
each  word. 


284  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

She  possesses  more  sense,  more  accomplishments,  and  beauty  than 
the  other. 

My  duty,  my  interest,  and  inclinations,  all  urged  me  forward. 

He  is  a  man  of  sagacity,  experience,  and  of  honesty. 

By  industry,  by  economy,  and  good  luck,  he  soon  acquired  a  fortune. 

While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold,  heat,  sum- 
mer, winter,  day  and  night,  shall  not  cease. 

4.  It  is  generally  improper  to  omit  the  subject-nomina- 
tive, unless  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  or  closely 
connected  with  another  verb  relating  to  the  same  subject. 

He  was  a  man  had  no  influence.     (Supply  wlio.^ 

There  is  no  man  knows  better  how  to  make  money. 

It  was  this  induced  me  to  send  for  you. 

If  there  are  any  have  been  omitted,  they  must  say  so. 

She  saw  at  once  what  was  best  to  do.   This  is  what  became  us  to  da 

Am  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortune  ;  but  hope  you  will  recover. 

This  is  a  position  I  condemn,  and  must  be  better  established  to  gain 
the  faith  of  any  one. 

Whose  own  example  strengthens  all  his  laws, 
And  is  himself  the  great  sublime  he  draws. 

Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind. 
And  never,  never,  be  to  heaven  resigned  ? 

5.  A  participial  noun  generally  requires  an  article  be- 
fore it,  and  of  after  it ;  or  else  the  omission  of  both  the 
article  and  the  preposition. 

Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven  as  a  day  of  rest,  is  required  by  the  Bible. 

By  the  exercising  our  judgment  it  is  improved. 

This  is  a  betraying  the  trust  reposed  in  him. 

A  wise  man  will  avoid  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles. 

A  wise  man  will  avoid  showing  of  any  excellence  in  trifles. 

Great  benefit  may  be  derived  from  reading  of  good  books. 

Thpfe  is  sometimes  a  difference  in  sense  ;  as.  "  He  expressed  his  pleasure  in  hearing 
the  philosopher."  He  heard.  "  He  expressed  his  pleasure  in  the  hearing  of  the  philoso- 
pher." The  philosopher  heard.  —  In  the  use  of  a  few  verbs,  when  the  antecedent  t  rra 
denotes  the  doer,  both  the  and  o/" should  be  omitted  ;  whea  the  subsequent  term  denotes 
the  doer,  the  and  o/ should  b«  used. 


.FALSE  SYNTAX.  285 

3.  IMPROPER  WORD  OR  EXPRESSION. 

General  Rule  III.  —  In  the  use  of  words,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  select  the  most  appropriate. 

To  lay ;  to  make  lie,  to  place.  To  lie ;  to  rest  in  a  reclining  position. 
To  set;  to  place.  To  sit;  to  rest.  To  seat;  to  place  in  a  sitting  position, 
to  furnish  with  a  seat.  Tu  learn ;  to  acfjuire  knowledge.  Jt»  teach  ;  to  im- 
part knowledge.  To  like;  to  be  pleased  with,  to  desire  moderately.  7b 
love ;  to  feel  affectionate  or  very  kind  towards.  2y  raise ;  to  lift.  To 
rise;  to  erect  one's  self,  to  ascend.  To  afftct ;  to  impress.  To  effect;  to 
accomplish.  To  elude ;  to  escape.  To  illude ;  to  deceive.  To  suspect ;  to 
mistrust.  To  expect;  to  await,  to  regard  as  something  that  is  to  be. 
Stinted,  insufficiently  fed,  restrained.  Stunted;  checked  in  growth,  dwarf- 
ish. Co  is  estimated  from  the  starting-point ;  and  come,  from  the  point  to 
be  reached.  Less  implies  size  or  number ;  y?^K-er,  number  only.  Wliole, 
the  entire  object ;  alt,  the  entire  number.  Either,  neither,  or  each  other, 
should  be  used  in  speaking  of  two  only ;  amj  one,  no  one,  none,  or  one  an- 
other, in  speaking  of  more. 

Into,  from  outside  to  inside ;  in,  inside  only  ;  at,  indefinitely  in  or  about ; 
in,  definitely  within ;  at,  border,  no  surroundings  ;  in,  enclosure,  surround- 
ings ;  between  or  betwixt,  two  only ;  among,  three  or  more ;  frequently,  htj, 
the  agent,  and  with,  the  means  or  manner;  a  taste  ©/"what  is  enjoyed,  a 
taste  yor  what  we  wish  to  enjoy;  disappointed  of  what  is  not  obtained,  dis- 
appointed in  what  fails  to  answer  our  expectations  after  it  is  obtained  ;  die 
o/"  disease,  fty  an  instrument;  compare  with,  {or  ascertaining  merits,  —  to, 
for  illustration  ;  attended  by  persons,  with  consequences  ;  agree  with  a  per- 
son, to  something  proposed,  and  upon  some  settlement  of  affairs  ;  change 
for  by  substitution,  and  to  or  into  by  alteration  ;  concur  with  a  person,  in  a 
measure,  and  to  an  effect ;  a  thing  consists  of  wliat  it  is  composed  of,  and 
consists  in  what  it  is  comprised  in  ;  conversant  with  men,  and  in  things; 
what  corresponds  with^  is  consistent  with,  —  and  what  corresponds  to,  an- 
swers to ;  defend  or  protect  ourselves  against,  and  others  from  ;  disagree 
with  a  person,  as  to  what  is  proposed  ;  usually,  expert  or  skillful  in,  before 
an  ordinary  noun,  —  and  at,  when  immediately  before  a  participml  rioun  ;  wo 
are  fanuliar  with  things,  and  they  are  familiar  to  us  ;  indulge  with  occasion- 
ally, and  indulge  in  habitually;  we  introduce  a  person  to  another,  and  a 
person  or  thing  into  a  place  ;  intrude  upon  a  person  or  thing,  and  in/o" some- 
thing enclosed  ;  we  usually  look  for  what  is  sought,  and  after  what  is  eji- 
trnsted  to  us;  prevail  with,  on,  or  upon,hy  persuasion,  — and  over  or  against 
all  opposition  ;  reconcile  one  friend  to  another,  and  apparent  inconsistencies 
with  one  another;  reduce  under  implies  subjugation,  and  reduce  to  implies 


286  ENGLISH  GRAMilAK. 

simply  a  change  of  state;   to  have  rejrarJ />?*,  and  to  pay  regard  to;  t 
unite  to  means  to  join  to,  and  frequentiy  as  an  appen(la<;;e,  —  to  unite  wit}. 
means  to  combine  with,  and  generally  as  a  colleague  or'an  equal ;  to  vest 
authority  in  a  person,  and  to  invent  a  person  with  authoiiry. 

Abhorrence  of;  abhorrent  to,  from ;  access  to ;  aei-onl  with;  accuse  of. 
adapted  to:  adequate  to;  agreeable  to;  aspire  to;  brag  o/";  capacity  y^r; 
comply  with;  confide  ?n ;  conformable  to,  with;  congenial  to,  with;  con- 
sonant with;  contiguous  to;  cured  of;  deficient  in;  dependent  on;  indepen- 
dent of;  derogate //OHi,-  derogatory  to;  destined  to;  dilfer/om,  seldom 
with;  difficulty  j'/j ;  diminish  //wh  ;  diminution  of;  discouriJge_//-ow;  dis- 
couragement to;  disgusted  at,  with;  disparagement  to;  dissent //om;  in 
distinction y^oni ;  ea<^er  in,  for,  after ;  embark  in,  for;  enamored  of,  with', 
enter,  entrance,  on,  upon,  into;  exception //om,  to,  against;  exclude //oni; 
exclusive  o/";  extracted  /roMj ;  followed  6y;  fond  of;  fondness_/br;  foreign 
to,  from;  founded  on,  upon,  sometimes  in;  ftac  from ;  glad  o/^  sometimes 
at;  g\i:\vd  agtinst ;  hunker  after;  inaccessible /o ;  incentive /o;  incorporate 
into,  with,  sometimes  in;  indulgent  to;  influence  over,  with,  on;  initiate 
in/o,  sometimes  in;  inroad  into;  intermediate  between;  intervene  between; 
inured  to;  invested  with,  in  ;  involve  in;  join  with,  to;  lame  of;  land  at; 
level  with;  \owr  fur,  after ;  made  of;  marry /o;  intermarry  with;  meddle 
loith  ;  martyr  for ;  militate  against ;  mingle  ttv7/i ;  mistrustful  o/;  neces- 
sary to,  for;  need  of;  neglectful  of;  object  to,  against ;  occasion ^r;  offend 
against;  offensive  to;  omitted  from;  overwhelmed  with,  bif ;  peculiar  to; 
penetrate  into;  pertinent  to;  pleasant  to  ;  pleaseil  icith;  preferable  to;  pref- 
erence to,  over,  ahove ;  prejudice  against;  pr(judi<'ial  to;  preserve  y/o/w ; 
productive  of;  profit  b>/ ;  profitable  to;  provide  with,  for,  against ;  pursuant 
to ;  pursuance  of;  refrain /yo//j ;  relation  to  ;  release  from ;  relieve  of  from; 
rely  on,  upon;  replete  with;  resemblance  to,  between;  in  or  with  respect  to; 
in  or  with  regard  to;  rise  above;  rid  of;  similar  to;  strip  of;  subtract 
from;  swerve  from  ;  sympathize  U7i7/i ;  sympathy /or,  with;  unison  with  ; 
weary  of;  worthy  of. 

Upon  is  to  on  as  into  is  to  in  ;  but  it  can  often  be  used  for  on,  and  is  then 
simply  a  little  more  forcible. 

Tlie  snme  preposition  that  follows  a  primitive  word,  naturally  follows  the 
derivative;  out  tliere  are  many  exceptions. 

Verbs   He  laid  abed  till  breakfast.     Lay  down  and  rest, 
and     ^Ve  had  laid  on  the  ground  all  night.  —  Neiospaper. 
After  laying  awhile  in  this  position,  he  raised  up. 
Wc  were  all  setting  round  the  fire.     We  set  up  late. 
Set  down  a  little  bit.     Are  you  going  to  go  ?     I  ain't  going  yet. 
I  didn't  go  to  do  it.  I  calculate  to  invest  my  money  in  something  else. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  '  287 

She  is  as  peevish  as  a  setting  hen.     The  nurse  sat  him  in  a  chair. 

The  sun  xets  ;  ami  a  current  mny  .set  in  .a  certain  direction  :  but  a  hen  rather  sf fa 
than  sets  ou  eggs  ;  and  a  ganueut  sits  or  fits  well,  tliough  it  may  have  a  good  set. 

1  love  bread  and  butter.     Can  you  learn  me  to  write  ? 

The  business  will  suit  any  one  who  enjoys  bad  health. 

He  was  raised  in  the  South.     Carry  tiie  horse  to  Avater. 

Cattle  and  agricultural  productions  are  raised  ,-  but  a  child  or  a  family  is  reared  ia  a 
ccrtaiu  style  of  life- 

I  expect  it  rained  here  yesterday.     The  garment  was  neatly  sown. 
We  suspect  the  trip  will  afford  us  great  pleasure. 
All  the  bottom-lands  along  the  Mississippi  were  overflown. 
They  shall  fly  from  the  wrath  to  come.     — Jlee  — 
Very  many  rivers  empty  into  the  Mississippi.     — 'Jloio  — 
The  tiiief  illuded  the  police.     He  was  much  effected  by  the  news. 
A  verb  ought  to  agree  with  its  subject,  in  person  and  number. 
Say  should  agree,  for  ought  usually  implies  moral  obligation. 

Write  for  me  no  more,  for  I  will  certainly . 

If  I  can  absent  myself,  I  will to  see  him. 

He  has  made  a  fine  crop  of  wheat.     I  am  necessitated  to  go.    " 

To  make  a  crop  is  perhaps  as  proper  an  expression  as  to  make  money  ;  still,  crops 
an'  not  manufactured.  Why  not  prefer  ohlijed  or  compef/ed  to  necessitated  f  for  tlio 
latter  is  a  long,  clumsy  Wurd,  aUnost  as  uncouth  as  necessitude. 

Four  goes  in  thirty,  seven  times,  and  two  over. 
CouBECTED :  Four  is  contained  seven  times  in  thirty,  with  two  remainder. 

Be  that  as  it  will.  I  cannot  give  my  consent. 

As  it  wilt  implies  certainty  ;  as  it  ma'j  implies  uncertainty. 

He  throwed  the  ball.     I  seed  him.     He  knowed  better. 

Only  those  verbs,  or  forms  of  verbs,  should  be  used,  which  are  authorized  by  good  pres- 
ent usage. 

I  drawed  the  line.    T  writ  the  name.     He  shoed  the  horse. 

We  be  all  of  us  from  York  State.     John  alit  from  his  horse. 

He  was  drownded.    They  were  attackted.     That  is  no  preventative. 

The  goods  were  shipt  yesterday.     Want  of  money  has  checkt  trade. 

•'  Dipt,  stript,  dropt,  perplext,  elapst,  absorpt,  linkt,  distrest." 

llather  than  thus  be  overtopt, 

Would  you  not  wish  their  laurels  cropt  ?  —  Swift. 
Thou  didd'st  weep  for  him.    Thou  mightest  return.    Ho  try'd  in  vain. 
Sj)irit  of  Freedom  !  once  on  Phyle's  brow  thou  satt'st  —  B>/ron. 

The  simpler  forms,  didst,  mijhtst,  tried,  and  satst,  are  preferable. 
Wast  thou  chopping  wood  ?     Learns  he  the  lesson  ? 
In  the  familiar  style,  grave  or  poetic  forms  of  expression  are  not  becoming. 


288  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

A  drive  into  the  country  deligliteth  and  invigorates  us. 
Tlie  eve  was  fair,  but  the  morn  Avas  cloudy  and  darksome. 
It  was  not  taken  notice  of.     —  teas  not  noticed. 
It  was  made  use  of  lor  this  purpose. 
She  said  our  noise  and  romping  must  be  put  a  stop  to. 
lie  was  found  fault  with,  and  taken  hold  of.     —  censured  and  seized, 
"Weights  and  measures  were  now  attempted  to  be  established. 
I'rom  Caiiyle.    Eettsr  -.  "  An  attempt  was  uow  made  to  establish,"  etc. 

She  is  getting  the  better  of  her  sickness.     —  recovering  from  — 

I  have  done  written  the  letter.     He  is  done  gone.    —  already  — 

Since  you  have  made  the  first,  you  may  do  the  rest.     —  make  — 

No  one  ever  sustained  such  mortifications  as  I  have  done  to-day. 

I  did  not  say,  as  some  have  done.  —  Bolingbrole. 

A  poet  can  rise  higher  .  .  .  than  a  public  speaker  can  do.  —  Dlair. " 

She  is  administrator.     He  married  a  Jew.     She  is  a  good  songster. 
She  is  a  good  sintjer  ;  for  songster  is  now  generally  applied  to  birds. 

A  cruel  tyrant,  and  her  name  is  Death.     §  224.  [gence. 

Her  stupidness  soon  appeared.    I  thought  she  treated  me  with  negli- 

Pronouas    Take  either  of  the  five.   Each  one  of  the  dozen  is  injured, 
ani        Any  one  of  the  two  roads  will  take  you  to  town.    §210. 

Adjectives.  Neither  one  of  these  three  hats  is  large  enough  for  my  head. 

Jack  and  Peg  called  one  another  nicknames.  —  Sivijl.     §  210. 

JMankind  resemble  each  other  most  in  the  beginnings  of  society. 

Verse  and  prose  run  into  one  another  like  light  and  shade.  —  Blair. 

You  may  take  e'er  a  one  or  ne'er  a  one,  just  as  you  please. 

That  very  point  which  we  are  now  discussing,  was  lately  decided  in 
the  supreme  court.    §  211. 

These  very  men  with  whom  you  traveled  yesterday,  are  now  in  jail. 

There  is  a  right  road,  and  there  is  a  wrong  road,  before  every  per- 
son :  this  leads  to  happiness;  and  that^  to  misery. 

It  all  tends  to  show  that  our  whole  plans  had  been  discovered. 

A  proper  fraction  is  less  than  one,  because  it  expresses  less  parts 
than  it  takes  to  make  a  unit.  —  CoHmrn. 

I  am  willing  to  pay  a  hundred  or  two  dollars.  [part. 

"We  have  not  the  least  right  to  your  protection.     Tlic  least  distinct 

These  evils  were  caused  by  Catiline,  who,  if  he  had  been  punished, 
the  republic  would  not  have  been  expose<l  to  such  great  dangers. 

Who  is  used  here  as  a  mere  connective,  or  it  is  deprived  of  its  chief  syntax.  (^622.) 
Say,  —  "  the  punishment  of  whom  would  have  prevented  the  republic  from  being  ex- 
posed to  dangers  so  great." 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  289 


He  reached  Charleston  about  the  same  time  that  we  did. 

Perhaps  allow^able,  as  being  an  idiom  ;  but  that^  in  this  construction,  is  a  dubious  word 
for  parsing.  Say,  —  "about  tlie  time  in  which  we  arrived  there.'''' 

At  the  same 'time  that  men  are  giving  their  orders,  God  is  also  giving 

his.     While  men,  etc. 
lie  has  never  preached,  that  I  have  heard  of. 
Ko  man  is  so  poor,  who  has  not  something  to  enjoy. 
Say,  —  "  that  he  has  not,"  etc.;  for  the  idea  of  consequence  predominates.— See  p.  186. 

I 
Adverbs       A  wicked  man  is  not  happy,  be  he  never  so  prosperous, 
and  Home  is  home,  be  it  never  so  homely. 

Conjunctions.  He  is  seldom  or  ever  here. 
He  said  nothing  farther.     I  can  go  no  further. 

Further ;  additional,  more  ;  applied  to  quantity.    Farther^  more  distant ;  applied  to 
epaca. 

Such  cloaks  were  in  fashion  five  years  since. 

Jjffo,  from  present  time  baclt  ;  since,  from  some  past  time  forward.    (Dictionaries  d© 
not  make  this  distinction  j  but  it  is  nevertheless  well  founded.) 

I  saw  him  about  five  weeks  since.     I  have  not  seen  him . 

Do  like  I  did.     You  are  not  studious,  like  he  is.    —  not  so  .  . .  as  — 

As,  and  not  like,  should  be  used  as  a  conjunctive  adverb,  between  two  clauses. 
A  diphthong  is  where  two  vowels  are  united. 
A  diphthong  is  when  two  vowels  are  united. 

Say,  "  A  diphthong  is  the  union  o/,"  etc. ;  for  a  diphthong  is  neither  place  nor  time. 

Fusion  is  while  a  solid  is  converted  into  a  liquid  by  heat. 
He  drew  up  a  petition  where  he  represented  his  grievances. 

Say,  —  "a  petition  t?i  which,"  etc.  ;  for  where  might  seem  to  be      conjunctive  ad- 
verb  relating  to  drew. 

She  is  such  a  good  woman.    —  so  good  a  woman. 

Such  expresses  quality  ;  and  so,  degree. 

I  have  seldom  seen  such  a  tall  man. 

The  letter  was  not  as  well  written  as  I  wished  it  to  be. 

He  is  such  a  great  man,  there  is  no  speaking  to  him. 

Allowable,  if  the  meaning  is,  he  is  a  great  man  of  such  a  kind  that  it  is  Impossible  to 
apeak  to  him.    But  if  degree  only  is  meant,  the  phrase  so  great  a  man  should  be  used. 

I  will  see  if  it  rains  or  no.     —  whether  .  .  .  or  not.     Page  185. 
AVhether  it  can  be  proved  or  no,  is  not  the  thing.  —  Butler, 
Go,  and  see  if  father  has  come.     See  if  that  will  do. 
Toll  me  if  we  are  going  to  have  but  one  session  to-day. 
Neither  our  position,  or  the  plan  of  attack,  was  known.     Page  186. 
I  demand  neither  place,  pension,  or  any  other  reward.  —  Franklin. 
13  s 


290  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

By  personIfication,thinn:s  arc  often  treated  as  thougli  they  were  hearers 

That  is,  —  "  as  (they  would  bt')  //  they  were  hearers." 
Tou  look  as  though  you  have  been  sick. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  what  he  is  mistaken. 

After  words  of  doubt,  fear,  or  deniivl,  that  is  j)rpfer})hle  to  »»/<,  Init  what,  hut  that,  anO 
sometimes  to  le»t.    Also  kow  and  us  that  are  bumciimes  u:ied  improperly  for  that. 

I  have  no  doubt  but  you  can  help  him.  —  Dr.  Johnson. 
1  am  surprised  liow  you  could  do  such  a  thing. 
lie  could  not  deny  but  what  he  borro\Yed  the  money. 
There  is  no  question  but  the  universe  has  certain  bounds  to  it, 
I  Tvas  afraid  lost  you  would  not  return  soon  enough. 
I  don't  know  as  I  shall  go,  and  I  don't  know  but  what  I  shall. 
lie  is  not  so  tired  l)ut  what  he  can  whistle.     —  that . . .  not  —    P.  186, 
This  is  none  other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise. 
Other,  else,  or  the  comparative  degree,  must  generally  be  followed  by  than.  Page  186- 

0  fairest  flower,  no  sooner  blown  but  blasted  !  —  Milton. 
It  is  nothing  else  but  the  people's  caprice.  —  Swift. 

The  loafer  seems  to  be  created  for  no  other  purpose  but  to  keep  up 

the  uncicnt  order  of  idleness.  —  Irving. 
Style  is  nothing  else  but  that  sort  of  expression  which  our  thoughts 

most  naturally  assume.  —  Blair. 
There  is  no  other  umbrella  here  but  mine. 
Nothing  else  but  this  will  do.     It  was  no  one  else  but  hiro- 

It  would  be  still  better  to  omit  else  from  the  two  foregoing  sentences. 

Scarcely  had  he  uttered  the  word,  than  the  fairy  disappeared,  (when) 

1  will  not  go  without  you  go  too.     —  xmless  — 
They  were  all  there,  unless  two  or  three. 
Proportion  is  simple  and  compound.     —  either  .  .  .  or  — 

To  borrow  or  to  lend  is  equally  imprudent.    {Equallj  requires  and.) 
Every  one  was  dressed  alike.  —  Swift. 
Say,  "They  were  ail  dressed  alike"  ;  for  alilce  here  requires  plurnlity. 

The  multitude  rebuked  them,  because  they  should  hold  their  p*;a«e. 
The  donation  was  the  more  acceptable,  that  it  was  given  witUout 

solicitation. 
Prepositions.    lie  died  with  a  fever.     lie  died  for  thirst. 
Do  not  let  the  dog  come  in  the  house.     He  came  of  a  sudden. 
This  is  a  very  different  dinner  to  what  we  had  yesterday. 
1  have  little  influence  with  him.     I  live  to  home. 
I  left  my  book  to  home.     His  czise  has  no  resemblance  with  mine. 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  ^91 

I  slionld  differ  with  you,  in  rejranl  to  that  affair. 

Wtll  authorized,  and  therefore  proper  -,  still,  from  seems  to  be  In  better  keepinR  with 
an;ili>py.  Ei  fjH.-sli  writers  generally  aay  d.^'er  wit/i,  in  reference  to  matters  of  opinion  ; 
and  differ  from,  iu  all  other  cases.  *•  1  differ  with  the  honorable  gentleman  ou  that 
pint."  —  Drouyham. 

The  soil  is  adapted  for  wheat  and  corn. 

lie  was  accused  with  having  acted  unfairly. 

The  sultry  evening  was  followed  with  a  storm. 

(What  is  the  difference  between  walking  in  a  garden  and  walking 

inlo  a  garden  ?) 

They  spent  the  summer  at  the  North,  in  a  small  village. 

He  resides No.  125, Tenth  Street. 

A  person  lives  at  a  No.,  and  in  a  street }  also  on  a  street,  especially  if  it  is  wide,  like 
an  avenue. 

Please  walk  in  the  setting-room.  "  His  prejudice  to  our  cause."  Dryden. 
Far  preferable  is  a  cottage  with  liberty,  than  splendor  with  debt. 
Such  were  the  difficulties  with  which  the  (question  was  involved, 
lie  always  tries  to  profit  from  the  errors  of  others. 
You  may  rely  in  what  I  say,  and  confide  on  his  honesty, 
I  was  disappointed  in  the  pleasure  of  meeting  you. 
There  is  constant  hostility  between  the  several  tribes  of  Indians. 
The  space  between  the  three  lines  is  the  area  of  the  triangle,  (loilhln) 
The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  among  one  another. 
Say,  —  "  among  themselves  "  ;  far  we  could  not  say  one  among  another. 

A  combat  between  twenty  Texans  against  fifty  Mexicans. 
Suadrics.    I  was  thinking  of  the  best  place  for  an  office.        [another. 
This  can  be  made  an  objection  against  one  government  as  well  as 
Abercrombie  had  still  nearly  four  times  the  number  of  the  enemy. 
I  am  looking  for  reinforcements,  which  the  enemy  cannot  expect. 
My  Chiistian  and  surname  begin  and  end  with  the  same  letter. 
Each  then  took  hold  of  one  end  of  the  pole,  to  carry  the  basket. 
Between  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric,  there  exists  a  close  and  happy 
connection  ;  which  reigns  through  all  science,  and  extends  to  all 
the  powers  of  elo({uence.  —  Makan. 
Observe  that  which  does  not  denote  the  identical  connection  mentioned  before  it  ;  and 
therefore  the  vvor.l  connection  is  not  the  i)roper  antecedent.    Say,  "Grammar,  logic, 
and  rhetoric,  have  ....  and  such  a  connection  reigns,  indeed,  through  all  science,"  etc. 

The  use  of  which  accents  [Greek  and  Roman]  avc  have  now  entirely 
lost.  —  Blair.     (We  never  had  them  to  lose.     Say,  is  lost.) 

Our  pronunciation  must  have  appeared  to  them  [the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans]  a  lifeless  monotony.  — Blair.  (They  never  heard  it. 
Say,  would  have  appeared.) 


292  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

Kulo   I. 

Them  that  seek  wisdom,  shall  find  it. 

Incokuect:  Die  prououn  thrm,  in  the  objective  case,  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  shall 
find  ,•  and  therefore  it  should  bo  tkey,  ia  tiio  uuiiiiuutive  case,  according  to  llule  1. 

Her  and  him  were  chosen.     Thee  art  most  in  fault 

Ilim  I  accuse,  has  entered.     He  loJiom,  etc. 

"Who  made  the  fire  ?  —  John  and  me  [made  it]. 

The  word  containing  the  answer  to  a  question  must  generally  be  in  the  same  case  as 
the  word  wiiich  asks  it. 

Who  swept  the  room  ?  —  Us  girls. 

Who  rode  in  the  buggy  ?  —  Him  and  Jane. 

What  were  you  and  him  talking  about  ?     Whom  shall  I  say  called  ? 

You  did  fully  as  well  as  me.     He  writes  better  than  me. 

The  Avhole  need  not  a  physician,  but  them  that  are  sick.  —  Bunyan» 

We  sorrow  not  as  them  that  have  no  liopc. 

I  do  not  think  suuh  persons  as  him  competent  to  judge. 

Truth  is  greater  than  us  all.  —  Horace  Mann. 

The  advice  of  those  whom  you  think  are  hearty  in  the  cause,  must 

direct  you.  —  Washington. 
A  reward  was  offered  to  whomsoever  would  point  out  a  practicable 

road.  —  Sir  W.  Scott.     Obs.  I,  p.  193. 

Rulo  II. 

Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew.     Pages  96,  191.      [education. 
Her  being  the  only  daughter,  no  expense  had  been  spared  in  her 
I  have  no  Avish  to  be  him.     And  me,  —  what  shall  I  do  ? 
He  had  no  doubt  of  its  being  me.     —  that  I  was  the  person. 

Rule   III. 
I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake.     A  five  days  journey. 
Brown,  Smith,  and  Jones's  wife,  usually  went  shopping  together. 
We  insist  on  them  staying  with  us.     I  rely  on  you  coming. 
His  father  was  opposed  to  him  going  to  California. 
What  do  you  think  of  [us?  or  ourf\  going  into  partnership  ? 

A  participle  that  follows  a  noun  or  pronoun,  becomes  a  participial  noun,  when  the  par* 
ftciple  is  the  chief  word  iu  sense. 

Bulo   IV. 

^Vho  did  you  call  ?    Who  shall  I  send  ?     Who  have  you  got  ? 
>Vho  can  I  trust  in  such  a  place,  or  who  shall  I  employ  ? 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  293 

Let  him  send  you  and  I.     Let  thou  and  I  the  battle  try. 
Ye  only  have  I  known.     Tell  me  who  you  mean. 
Let  them  the  state  defend,  and  he  adorn.  —  Cowley, 
Him  you  should  punish  j  not  I,  who  am  innocent. 

Eule  V. 
Who  did  you  come  with  ?     Who  is  it  for  ?     Who  do  you  work  for? 
Who  is  that  boy  speaking  to  ?     This  is  between  you  and  L 
They  who  much  is  given  to,  will  have  much  to  answer  for. 
I  saw  no  one  there  except  he.     "  Who  did  he  send  for  ?  —  We." 
AVho  were  you  talking  with  ?     Who  shall  I  direct  it  to  ? 
Mv  son  is  to  be  raarritid  to  I  don't  know  who.  —  Goldsmith. 

When  hut  and  xave  :.re  followed  by  a  substantive,  nnd  not  by  a  clause,  they  are  now 
considered  prepositions  rather  than  conjunctions  ;  as,  "  M  hence  uii  but  Aim  had  fled."~- 
Hemans.    "  Ail  desisted,  ail  saue  him  alone."  —  ti^ordsworth. 

Bulo  VI. 
A  lad  of  twelve  or  fifteen  years  old.     I  returned  oii  yesterday. 
Let  a  gallows  be  made  of  fifty  cubFts  high.  —  Bible. 
To  an  infant  of  two  or  three  years  old. —  Wayland. 
Who  do  I  look  like  ?     She  promised  him  and  I  some  peaches. 

Bulo  VII. 

Let  us  worship  God,  he  who  created  and  sustains  us. 

It  Is  me.     It  was  them.     Was  it  him,  or  her  ? 

I  did  not  know  it  was  her.     I  thought  it  was  her. 

It  was  n't  me,  but  him.     It  could  not  have  been  us. 

Is  It  me  you  want  ?     It  was  them  that  did  it. 

Whom  do  you  think  It  was  ?     Who  do  you  take  me  to  be  ? 

Let  the  same  be  she  whom  thou  hast  appointed. 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?  —  Bible.    It  is  him  who,  etc.  —  S.  Smith, 

■Rule  VIII. 
I  would  like  to  have  It  now,  what  I  had  then, 
"Whatever  she  found,  she  took.  It  with  her.  ^ 

Bulo  IX. 

Nobody  will  ever  entrust  themselves  to  that  boat  again. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  substantive  of  the  common  pender,  denotes  a  person,  nnd  Is 
of  the  sinfrular  numlvjr,  so  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  choose  either  a  masculine  or  a 
feminine  pronoun,  the  masculine  is  preferred.    §  221, 

Every  person  should  try  to  improve  their  mind  and  heart. 

A  person  who  is  resolute,  energetic,  and  watchful,  is  apt  to  succeed 

in  their  undertakings. 


294  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

If  there  is  anybody  down  there,  let  them  answer. 

She  took  out  the  ashes,  and  gave  it  to  a  servant.     §  241. 

If  you  have  any  victuals  left,  we  will  help  you  eat  it. 

Wlien  a  bird  is  caught  in  a  trap,  they  of  course  try  to  get  out.   §  222. 

The  regimcmt  was  much  reduced  in  their  number.     §§  245,  246. 

The  people  can  not  be  long  deceived  by  its  demagogues. 

The  army  being  abandoned  by  its  leader,  pursued  meanwhile  their 

miserable  march. 
Let  the  construction  be  either  singular  throughout  or  plural  throughout,  but  not  both. 
The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  runs  the  faster,  the  less  weight 

it  carries.     — he  carries.     Or,  —  race-horse :  it  runs,  etc. 

The  pronominal  construction  should  relate,  throughout,  either  to  the  tongue  or  to  the 
horse,  but  uot  to  both. 

An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 
As  useless  when  he  goes  as  when  he  stands. 
Here  the  second  line  relates  more  directly  to  the  watch. 

I  have  sowed  all  my  oats,  and  it  is  growing  finely. 

Our  language  is  not  less  refined  than  tliose  of  Italy,  France,  or  Spain. 

A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  with,  the  noun  which  the  pronoun 
represents. 

The  peacock  is  fond  of  displaying  its  gorgeous  plumage. 

The  hen  looked  very  disconsolate  when  its  brood  rushed  into  the  pond. 

Horses  is  of  the  plural  number,  because  they  denote  more  than  one. 

Every  half  a  dozen  boys  should  Jiave  its  own  bench. 

Poverty  and  v/ealth  have  each  their  own  temptation. 

Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance.   §  461. 

One  or  the  other  of  us  must  relinquish  their  claim.     §  460. 

No  man  or  woman  ever  got  rid  of  their  vices,  without  a  struggle. 

Say,  —  "  bin  or  her  vices."  etc.  "When  the  antecedent  is  of  i\^^}.  common  gender,  the 
masculine  pronoun  can  be  used  5  but  when  the  opposite  sexes  are  distinctly  mentioned,  it 
is  better  to  use  n  pronoun  suitable  to  each  antecedent  than  to  use  a  prououu  suitable  to 
one  only.    A  different  expression  is  sometimes  still  better. 

If  any  gentleman  or  lady  wishes  to  have  their  fortune  told,  etc. 
Notice  is  hereby  given  to  every  person  to  pay  their  taxes. 

(Change  the  antecedent ;  say,  —  "  to  all  persons,''^  etc.) 
Our  teacher  does  not  let  any  one  of  us  do  as  they  please. 
Every  person  and  thing  had  its  proper  place  assigned  to  it.   — the  — 
I  do  not  know  which  one  of  the  men  finished  their  work  first. 
Coflee  and  sugar  are  brought  from  the  "West  Indies ;  and  large  quan- 
tities of  «7  are  consumed  annually.     §461. 

More  exercises,  in  the  coastructiou  of  pronouus,  will  be  found  under  Kule  XI. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  295 

Rule  X.-Note  II. 

Tlie  Inlet  was  two  mile  wi.le.    I  bouglit  llirec  ton  of  hay. 
It  weighed  five  pound.     How  do  you  like  these  kind  of  chairs  ? 
I  never  could  endure  those  kind  of  people.     These  sort  of  things. 
These  sort  of  fel'ows  are  very  numerous.  —  Spectator.    Fellows  o/,  etc. 
This  twenty  years  have  I  been  with  thee.  —  Bible. 
Plurab  down  he  dropped  ten  thousand  fathom  deep.  —  Milton. 
I  measured  the  log  with  a  pole  ten  foot  long,—  with  a  ten-feet  pole. 
When  a  cotniiound  adjective  consists  of  a  plural  numeral  and  a  noun,  the  noun  is  not 
made  plural.  —  Sue  p.  316. 

The  lot  has  twenty-five  foot  front,  and  is  eight  rod  deep. 
The  work  embraces  every  minutiae  —  all  the  minutia  —  of  the  science. 
Learn  the  sixth  and  seventh  page,  and  review  the  fourth  and  the 
fifth  pages. 

Rule  XI. 
Circumstances  alters  cases.    The  molasses  are  excellent. 
His  pulse  are  beating  too  fast.     AVas  you  there  ? 
He  dare  not  meddle  with  it.     She  need  not  trouble  herself. 

JSfeed  and  dare,  especinlly  the  former,  are  sometimes  used  by  good  writers  in  stead  (tf 
needs  and  dares  :  but  it  is  generally  better  to  avoid  such  usage. 

Five  dimes  is  half  a  dollar.     There  was  only  seven  of  us. 

Peace  has  at  last  come,  and  with  it  has  come  many  changes. 

Thou  heard  the  storm ;  did  thou  not  ?     Thou  shall  go. 

Oats  is  sowed  in  spring.     Tion  are  pronounced  slum. 

Such  is  the  tales  his  Nubians  tell.    Every  ten  tens  makes  a  hundred. 

fj  458. 

You  and  your  companions  must  not  forget  their  duty. 

John,  you,  and  I,  are  attached  to  their  country. 

f)  459. 

Neither  he  nor  you  was  mentioned.     Is  I  or  he  to  blame  for  it  ? 
On  that  occasion,  neither  he  nor  I  were  consulted. 
§400. 

2.  There  go  a  gang  of  deer.    Generation  after  generation  pass  away. 
A  committee  were  appointed  to  examine  the  accounts. 

The  society  hold  their  meetings  on  Fridays. 
The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 

3.  "  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  "  were  written  by  D.  G.  Mitchell, 
G.  Everybody  are  disposed  to  help  him. 

Each  strove  to  recover  their  position. 


296  ENGLISH  GRAJilMAR. 

Every  person  arc  hereby  notified  to  pay  tlieir  taxes. 

Neither  one  arc  suitable  to  my  purj)ose. 

Everybody  is  fighting,  and  have  been  for  several  days.  —  Newspaper. 

Every  tall  tree  and  every  steeple  were  blown  down. 

Every  soldier  and  every  olficer  remained  awake  at  their  station. 

Every  leaf,  every  twig,  and  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  life. 

Every  skiflf  and  canoe  were  loaded  to  the  water's  edge. 

No  wife,  no  mother,  and  no  child,  were  there  to  comfort  him. 

No  thought,  no  word,  no  action,  whether  they  bo  good  or  evil,  can 
escape  the  notice  of  God.  [regret. 

Many  a  man  looks  back  on  the  days  of  their  youth,  with  melancholy 

7.  Either  Thomas  or  George  have  to  stay  at  home. 

Neither  Holmes,  Forbes,  nor  Jenkins,  were  da.'ismates  of  mine. 

Neither  the  father  nor  the  son  had  ever  been  distinguished  for  their 
business  cpialifications.  If  you  should  sec  my  horse  or  mule,  I 
■wish  you  would  have  them  turned  into  your  pasture. 

Riding  on  horseback,  or  rowing  a  skiff,  arc  good  exercise. 

It  is  neither  Osmyn  nor  Jane  Shore  that  speak.  —  Blair,  • 
MGl. 

1.  Has  the  horses  been  fed  ?    There  's  two  or  three  of  U8. 
The  victuals  was  cold.     There  is  no  tidings. 

There  seems  to  be  no  others  included. 

On  each  side  of  the  river  was  ridges  of  hills. 

There  was  no  memoranda  kept  of  the  sales. 

The  book  is  one  of  the  best  that  ever  was  written. 

Such  accommodations  as  was  necessary,  was  provided. 

lie  is  one  of  the  preachers  that  belongs  to  the  church  militant,  and 
takes  considerable  interest  in  politics. 

What  is  twenty-two  poor  years  to  the  finishing  a  lawsuit ! —  Swiji. 
While  ever  and  anon  there  falls 
Huge  lieaps  of  hoary  mouldered  walls.  —  D}/er, 

2.  The  committee  disagrees.    At  least  half  the  members  was  present. 
The  higher  class  looks  with  scorn  on  those  below  them. 

All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 

In  France,  the  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  while  the  middle  sort  makes 

use  of  wooden  shoes. 
Send  the  multitude  away,  that  it  may  buy  itself  food. 

3.  Five  pair  was  sold.     Fifty  head  was  drowned. 

Pair  and  head,  when  thus  plurul  in  sense  without  being  plural  in  form,  resemble  col- 
luctive  Douoa. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  297 

4.  !Mary  antl  licr  cousin  was  at  our  house  last  week. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man.     Tiiis  and  that  house  belongs  to  him* 
Hill  and  dale  doth  boast  Thy  blessing, 
lu  all  her  movements  there  is  grace  and  dignity. 
Two  and  two  is  (bur,  and  one  [and  four]  is  five.  —  Pope* 
There  seems  to  be  war  and  disturbance  in  Kansas. 
Every  store  and  residence  were  pillaged. 
Every  merchant's  store  and  residence  was  pillaged. 
Enough  money  and  time  has  already  been  expended. 
Both  minister  and  magistrate  are  sometimes  compelled  to  choose  be- 
tween his  duty  and  his  reputation. 

5.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  and  force,  one  or  more  words  is  sometimes 
omitted.     One  or  more  persons  was  concerned. 

Neither  beauty,  wealth,  nor  talents,  was  injurious  to  his  modesty. 
I  borrow  one  peck,  or  eight  quarts,  and  add to  the  upper  term. 

H02. 

1.  Every  one  of  the  witnesses  testify  to  the  same  thing. 
Each  one  of  the  vowcb  represent  several  sounds. 

How  are  each  of  the  relatives  used  ?   Neither  of  us  have  a  dollar  left. 
Either  one  of  the  schools  are  good  enough. 
A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye. 
AVhich  one  of  these  soldiers  were  wounded  ? 
The  sum  of  twenty  thousand  dollars  have  been  expended. 
A  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  revenue  is  now  in  the  treasury. 
The  mother,  with  her  daughter,  have  spent  the  summer  here. 
The  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches  were  unknown.  —  Hume. 
Nothing  but  expense  and  trouble  have  grown  out  of  the  business. 
The  richness  of  their  arms  and  apparel  were  conspicuous.  —  Gibbon, 
Each  one  of  us  have  as  much  as  we  can  do.     Rule  IX. 
Neither  of  us  is  willing  to  give  up  our  claim. 
Correct,  if  common  possession  is  meant ;  if  not,  our  should  be  his. 

There  is  more  stamina  in  the  Western  men.     —  more  of — 
The  idea  of  such  a  collection  of  men  as  make  an  army.  —  Locke. 

2.  Lafayette  Place,  or  Gardens,  occupy  several  acres. 

3.  Two  parallel  lines  is  the  sign  of  equality.  . 

The  sign  of  equality  arc  two  parallel  lines.     —  consists  of — 
My  cause  and  theirs  is  one.  —  Dryden. 

The  few  dollars  which  he  owes  me,  is  a  matter  of  small  consequence. 
13* 


298  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Virtue  and  mutual  confidence  is  the  soul  of  friendship. 
To  the  Christian,  tiic  pleasures  of  this  world  is  vanity. 

This  sentence,  as  it  stands,  means  that  Christians  take  the  greatest  delight  in  vanity. 
Twelve  single  things,  viewed  as  a  whole,  is  called  a  dozen. 
Said  the  burning  Candle,  "My  us3  and  beauty  is  my  death." 
Minced  pies  was  regarded  as  a  profane  viand,  by  the  sectaries.— //am«. 
It  is  vanity  and  selfishness  that  ina a  woman  a  coquet. 

In  such  constructions,  the  penuine  antecedent  is  it ;  but  the  relative  clause  is  nsu.iUy 
atiracteii  into  the  nearer  or  identifyinj;  word  <ir  words,  and  agrees  with  tli 'm  in  granimut- 
ical  |»ri)perties.   "  It  is  the  mental  and  moral/orces  wkick  yovern  the  world."  —  Everett. 

4.  and  5.  Homer,  as  well  as  Virgil,  were  translated  and  studied  oa 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  —  Gibbon. 
All  the  speakers,  but  especially  the  last  one,  was  very  eloquent. 
lie,  not  less  than  you,  deserve  punishment. 
He,  and  not  I,  am  responsible.     I,  and  not  ho,  is  responsible. 
The  father,  and  the  son  too,  were  in  the  battle. 

"  Jy,  and  vo  too,  was  no  good  divinity."  —  Shakespeare. 
The  sons,  and  also  the  father,  Avas  in  the  battle. 
Not  his  wealth,  but  his  talents,  deserves  praise. 
It  is  his  wealth,  and  not  h!s  talents,  that  give  him  position/ 
It  is  his  talents,  and  not  his  wealth,  that  gives  him  position. 
There  is  sometimes  more  than  one  auxiliary  to  the  verb.  —  Angus. 

The  comparison  itself  excludes  one  term  from  the  other. 

Special    Bulcs. 

1.  The  pronoun  them  should  not  be  used  for  the  adjec- 
tive those. 

Them  boys  are  very  lazy.     Give  mc  them  books. 
"What  do  you  ask  for  them  peaches  ?     Take  away  them  things. 
Let  some  of  them  boys  sit  on  some  of  them  other  benches. 
Them  are  good  mackerel.    "Them  are  my  sentiments. 

2.  Adverbs  should  be  used  to  qualify  verbs,  adjectives, 
or  other  adverbs ;  and  adjectives,  to  qualify  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns. 

She  sews  good  and  neat.  Speak  slow  and  distinct. 
The  work  is  near  done.  I  am  only  tolerable  well. 
I  never  studied  no  grammar,  but  1  can  talk  just  as  good  as  them  that 

talk  grammatical.     I  am  exceeding  busy. 
I  was  scarce  sensible  of  the  motion.     You  behaved  very  bad. 
I  came  there  previous.     He  acted  conformable  to  orders. 
We  ought  to  value  our  privileges  higher.   I  can  write  easiest  this  way. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  299 

Apples  are  more  plenty  than  peaches.  —  Webster. 
We  landed  safely  after  all  our  misfortunes. 
Thinjjs  look  much  more  favorably  this  morning. 
How  beautifully  this  whole  section  of  country  appears!  [Dn/den. 

It,  rarely  happens  that  a  verse  of  monosyllables  sounds  harmoniously. 
I  can  not  say  a  word  too  highly  in  praise  of  his  servi(;es.  —  Grant. 
Now  the  moonlight  began  to  prevail  over  the  twilight,  and  Emma 
felt  very  poetically.  —  A  Novel. 

3.  The  comparative  degree  is  used  when  but  two  ob- 
jects are  compared ;  and  the  superlative,  when  three  or 
more  are  compared. 

The  eldest  of  her  two  sons  is  going  to  school.     The  latter  of  three. 
John  is  the  oldest,  but  James  is  the  largest,  of  the  two  boys. 
Which  is  the  largest  number,  —  the  minuend  or  the  subtrahend  ? 
Which  do  you  like  best,  —  tea  or  cofl'ee  ?     The  last  of  two. 
Which  is  farthest  north,  —  Chicago  or  London  ? 
Choose  the  least  of  two  evils.    This  hurt  him  worst  of  any  thing  else. 
China  has  the  greatest  population  of  any  other  country  on  earth. 

4.  The  leading  term  of  a  comparison  should  not  be 
compared  with  itself,  nor  included  in  that  to  which  it  does 
not  belong. 

When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter  term  of  comparison 
should  always  exclude  the  former  ;  Jind  when  the  superlative  degree  is  used, 
the  latter  term  of  comparison  should  always  include  the  former.  But  the 
term  construed  after  the  superlative  degree  should  always  express  plural- 
ity ;  for  if  it  docs  not,  the  leadings  term  is  also  compared  with  itself  Oilier^ 
or  a  similar  word,  makes  two  distinct  parts,  but  comprises  them  in  one 
general  class. 

Youth  is  the  most  important  period  of  any  in  life. 
These  people  seemed  to  us  the  most  ignorant  of  any  we  had  seen. 
Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  any  lake  in  the  world. 
That  boy  is  the  brightest  of  all  his  classmates. 
That  is  a  better-furnished  room  thafi  any  in  the  house. 
That  is  the  best-furnished  room  of  any  in  the  house. 
China  has  the  greatest  population  of  any  nation  [country]  on  the  globe. 
This  was  the  thing  which  of  all  others  I  wished  most  to  see.  —  Southey. 
Uomer  had  the  greatest  invention  of  any  writer  whatever.  —  Pope. 


800  ENGLISH  GRAililAR. 

5.  Avoid  all  improper  modes  of  expressing  comparison 
or  the  plural  number. 

I  tliink  the  rose  is  the  bcautifullest  of  flowers.     §  345. 

He  is  the  awkwardcst  fellow  I  ever  saw. 

He  lives  ill  the  fartherest  house  on  the  street. 

The  vallies  of  California  are  among  the  most  bcautii'ul  In  the  world. 

"We  need  two  astronomys.     All  the  Lee's  were  officers. 

They  seem  to  have  been  only  the  tyro's,  or  younger  scholars.  —  Swift. 

The  vermins  were  so  numerous  that  we  could  raise  no  fowl. 

We  saw  three  deers  in  the  wheat-field.     Those  are  good  mackerel. 

His  brother-in-laws  were  educated  at  the  same  school.     §  255. 

6.  Words  should  not  be  compared,  or  made  plural, 
when  the  sense  does  not  allow  or  require  it. 

It  is  the  most  universal  opinion.     This  is  more  preferable  than  that. 
Virtue  confers  supremest  dignity  on  man,  and  should  be  his  chiefest 

desire.     A  more  perpendicular  line.     (A  line  more  nearly) 
It  is  not  so  universally  known  as  you  think. 

Say,  —  "not  so  (jeneral/i/,^^  etc,  ;  for  so  expresses  ilegree,  and  therefore  implies  com- 
parison.   §  3u7. 

I  hope  the  people  arc  more  uncorrupt  than  their  leaders. 

Say,  —  "  less  corrupt  than  their  leaders." 
The  farm  is  a  long  ways  from  market.     ^lakc  a  memoranda  of  it. 

By  the  same  analop;;y,  somewkcrcs,  nowheres,  etc.,  are  fruqueiitly  used  imoroperly  for 
somewhere,  nowkere,  etc. 

Few  persons  are  contented  with  their  lots. 
It  was  for  our  sakes  that  Jesus  died  upon  the  cross. 
His  father's  and  mother's  names  were  written  on  the  blank  leaf. 
Better:  "His  father's  name  and  his  mother's  were  written,"  etc.  —See  p.  316. 

Both  he  and  I  were  neither  of  us  any  great  talkers. 

7.  A  should  be  used  before  consonant  sounds ;  and  an, 
before  vowel  sounds.     §§  313,  314. 

We  encamped  in  a  open  field.     Such  an  one  said  sow 
It  is  an  useful  exercise.     He  is  a  honest  man, 
Argus  is  said  to  have  had  an  hunflred  eyes. 
There  was  not  an  human  being  on  the  place. 
A  heroic  deed  it  was.     It  is  an  universal  complaint. 
An  ulmiuitous  quack.  —  Poe.    An  united  people. — Jefferson.    An  hun- 
dred times.  —  Swijl. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  801 

8.  A  or  an  denotes  an  indefinite  one  of  several ;  the 
denotes  the  only  one,  the  class,  or  a  particular  one  of 
several. 

lie  does  not  own  as  much  as  the  fifth  part  of  what  you  own. 

No  i)articular  Cfth  part  was  meant ;  an.l  there  are  more  fifths  than  one  in  a  whole. 
An  oak  is  a  tree  of  great  durability.     That  noble  animal,  a  horse. 
The  assertion  may  not  be  true  of  any  one  tree;  but  it  is  true  of  the  class  in  general. 

A  hon  is  bold.     A  pink  is  a  very  common  species  of  flower. 
AVhen  a  whole  is  put  ibr  the  part,  or  the  part  for  a  whole,  the  figure 
is  called  synec'doche. 

9.  The  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  not  that  of  the 
preposition,  should  be  made  the  subject  of  the  passive 
verb. 

We  were  shown  a  sweet  potato  that  weighed  fifteen  pounds. 
You  were  paid  a  high  compliment  by  the  young  lady. 
IMr.  Burke  was  oflered  a  very  lucrative  employment.  —  Goodrich. 
AVashington  was  given  the  command  of  a  division.  —  Irving. 
He  was  presented  a  beautiful  sword  by  his  neighbors. 

10.  The  possessive  case  of  a  noun  should  always  be 
written  witli  an  apostrophe  ;  the  possessive  case  of  a  per- 
sonal pronoun  sliould  never  be  written  with  an  apostrophe. 

A  possessire  noun,  in  apposition  with  another,  is  sometimes  written  without  any  pos- 
83S5ive  sign.    5'  291- 

This  is  the  boys  hat.     Six  months  interest  is  due.    §§  275,  276. 

A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care  are  natures  gifts  for  mans 

advantage.    Mens  and  boys  hats. 
No  ones  ability  ever  went  farther  for  others  good.     §  304. 
The  two  electric  fluids  neutralized  each  others'  effects.  —  Harper's 
These  are  our's.     That  is  your's  or  their's,  not  h(;r's.  [Mar/azine. 

Do  not  say  yourn,  hern,  hissen,  ourn,  or  theirn,  for  i/ours,  hers,  his,  ours,  or  theirs. 
This  mans  place  is  taken.  These  mens  places  are  taken. 

That  ofiicers  servant  is  here.       Those  ofiicers  servants  are  here. 
This  sheeps  wool  is  fine.  These  sheeps  wool  is  fine. 

11.  A  compound  word  or  a  complex  term  takes  the 
possessive  sign  but  once ;  generally  at  the  end,  or  next 
to  the  name  of  what  is  owned. 


302  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

I  will  meet  you  at  ^lason's,  the  apotlieeary's. 

"We  used  to  read  about  Jack's  the  Giant-killer's  wonderful  exploits. 

This  palace  had  been  the  grand  Sultan's  ]\lohammed's. 

These  works  are  Cicero's,  the  most  elo(iuent  of  men's. 

12.  A  pair  or  series  of  nour.s,  implying  common  pos- 
session, take  the  possessive  sign  at  the  end,  and  but  once. 

Bond's  and  Allen's  store  is  the  next  one  above  us. 
Allen's,  Thomson's,  and  Ilardcastle's  store  is  opposite  to  ours. 
Peter's  and  Andrew's  occupation  was  that  of  fishermen. 
Beaumont's  and  Fletcher's  Plays  wore  the  joint  production  of  two  men. 

Bond  anil  Jlle.n\s  store  is  one  store,  belonging  to  botli  ineii. 
Boncfs  anil  Allen's  store  are  two  stores,  one  belonging  to  each  man. 

That  one  ownership  allows  but  one  possessive  sij;n,  that  each  ('.istinct  ownership  re* 
quiros  a  distinct  possessive  sign,  anil  tliat  tlie  jwssessivo  si;;n  siioui>l  lie  placed  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  name  of  what  is  owued,  are  fuudamental  ideas  that  govern  the  syuUx  of 
the  possessive  case. 

13.  A  pair  or  series  of  nouns,  not  implying  common 
possession,  or  emphatically  distinguished,  take  each  the 
possessive  sign. 

John  and  William's  boots  fit  them  well.  Is  it  John  or  William's  book  ? 

Allen,  Thomson,  and  Ilardcastle's  store,  are  the  next  three  above  us. 

As  well,  or  better,  thus  .  "  Allen's  store,  Thomson's,  and  Hardcastle's,  are  the  next,"  etc. 

They  took  the  surgeon  as  well  the  physician's  advice. 

14.  To  avoid  Iiarshness  or  inelegance,  possession  is 
sometimes  better  expressed  by  of;  and  sometimes  even 
the  possessive  s  may  be  omitted. 

Essex's  death  haunted  the  conscience  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Leonidas's  soldiers  were  as  brave  as  himself. 
England  and  France's  armies  fought  side  by  side  in  the  Crime'a. 
Such  were  Daniel  Boone  of  Kentucky's  adventures. 
He  thinks  his  own  opinions  better  than  any  one  else's  opinions  — 
any  one's  else  opinions.     —  tJian  tJinae  ofamj  one  ehc 

In  the  collwiuial  style,  the  first  expression  is  probably  allowable.  "  Like  nobody  else's 
children."  —  ,/tTro/J.-  Mrs.  Caudle. 

They  cast  themselves  down  at  Jesus's  feet. 
Archimedes's  screw  is  an  hydraulic  machine 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  803 

15.  Prononns  should  be  so  used  that  it  may  not  be 
doubtful  for  Avhat  tliey  stand. 

Pronouns  are  very  indefinite  words,  and  are  therefore  often  liable  to  ambi- 

Ambiguity  in  the  use  of  pronouns  is  generally  best  avoided  by  substituting 
nouns  for  them. 

Since  pi-onouns  are  substitutes  for  nouns,  it  is  hardly  proper  to  make  a  pro- 
noun represent  an  adjective  or  a  predicate  when  a  better  expression  can  be 
found. 

When  a  conjunction  is  to  be  supplied,  it  is  called  asyndedon. 

Say,  —  '■'■the.  firure  is  called,"  etc.  (''When  I  see  many  U»  on  a  page,  I  alvrays 
tremble  for  tlie  writer."  —  Cobbett.) 

When  a  man  kills  another  from  malice,  it  is  called  murder. 

Religion  will  afibrd  us  pleasure  Avhen  others  leave  us. 

The  lord  can  not  refuse  to  admit  the  heir  of  his  tenant  upon  his 
death;  nor  can  he  remove  his  present  tenant  so  long  as  he  lives. 

Bladcatone. 

lie  wrote  to  that  distinguished  philosopher  [Aristotle]  in  terms  the 
most  polite  and  (lattering,  bogging  of  him  to  undertake  his  edu- 
cation, and  to  bestow  upon  hiui  those  useful  lessons  which  his 
numerous  avocations  would  not  allow  him  to  bestow^  —  Guld- 
smilh's  Greece. 
Philip  wrote  ....  Alexander's  education  ....  his  own  numerous,  etc. 

John  told  James  that  his  horse  had  run  away.    (Change  the  sentence.) 
They  flew  to  arms,  and  attacked  Northumberland's  horse,  whom  they 

put  to  death.  —  Hume. 
The  law  is  inoperative,  which  is  not  right. 
Say,  —  ^'■and  that  it  is  so,  is  not  right." 

The  servant  took  away  the  horse,  which  was  unnecessary. 

The  prisoners  rebelled  against  the  regulations  of  the  establishment, 

of  which  we  shall  presently  give  an  account. 
Mr.  Dana  asked  Mv,  Gore's  leave  to  say  a  few  words,  which  he  did; 

after  which  he  retired  from  the  Convention.  —  Elliot's  Debates. 

16.  Wio  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  all  other  objects, 
and  that  to  either. 

For  more  defiuite  directions,  see  pp.  76,  77,  and  78. 
Those  which  are  rich,  should  assist  the  poor  and  helpless. 
Eve  gave  of  the  fruit  to  the  other  creatures  in  Eden,  who  all  ate  of 


304  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

it,  and  so  became  mortal,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  phoenix 

who  refused  to  taste  it,  and  consequently  remained  immortal. 
•The  horse  and  rider  which  we  saw,  fell  in  the  battle. 
Of  all  thccongregations  Avhom  I  ever  saw,  this  was  the  largest. 

The  entire  cohectioa  of  persons  ia  evUlently  regardeJ  as  one  thincj     §  101. 
This  was  certainly  the  larjiest  congregation  which  I  ever  saw. 
All  the  people  which  were  present,  joined  in  the  prayer. 
There  was  a  certain  householder  which  planted  a  vineyard.  —  Bible. 
A  butterfly,  which  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveler,  etc. 
Pitt  was  the  pillar  who  upheld  the  state. 

I  am  the  same  as  I  was.     I  gave  all  what  I  had.  [Alamo. 

It  is  the  best  which  can  be  got.    The  heroic  souls  which  defended  the 
This  lubberly  boy  we  called  FalstalT,  who  was  but  another  name  for 

fat  and  fun.     (A  mere  name  is  a  thinfj.) 
The  most  tremendous  civil  war  which  history  records.  —  Newspaper. 
Who  ever  became  great,  who  was  not  ambitious  ? 
Who  of  these  boys  has  lost  a  knife  ?    §  201. 
With  the  return  of  spring  came  four  martins,  who  were  evidently 

the  same  which  had  been  bred  under  those  eaves  the  previous 

year. 

17.  It  is  improper  to  mix  different  kinds  of  pronouns 
in  the  same  construction. 

Know  thyself,  aryl  do  your  duty.     You  have  mine,  and  I  have  thine. 

Ere  you  remark  another's  fault,  bid  thy  own  conscience  look  within. 

The  poor  man  ay  ho  can  read,  and  that  has  a  ^aste  for  reading,  can 
find  entertainment  at  home. 

The  man  Avho  came  with  us,  and  that  was  dressed  in  black,  is  the 
preacher.     Such  as  yours,  or  which  you  bought.  —  or  such  as  — 

But  what  we  saw  last,  and  which  pleased  us  most,  was  the  farce. 

Policy  keeps  coining  truth  in  her  mints,  —  such  truth  as  it  can  toler- 
ate ;  and  every  die  except  its  own  she  breaks,  and  casts  away. 

18.  It  is  generally  improper  to  use  different  forms  of 
the  verb  in  the  same  construction. 

Does  he  not  behave  well,  and  gets  his  lessons  well  ? 
Did  you  not  borrow  it,  and  promised  to  return  it  soon  ? 
If  these  remedies  be  applied,  and  the  patient  improves  not,  the  case 
may  be  considered  hopeless* 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  305 

To  profess  regard,  and  acting  differently,  discovers  a  base  mind. 

Spelling  is  easier  than  to  parse  or  cipher. 

To  say  he  is  relieved,  is  the  same  as  saying  he  is  dismissed. 

19.  What  is  forced  upon  the  speaker,  or  what  will 
simply  happen  to  him,  is  better  expressed  by  shall  or 
should  than  by  will  or  would. 

Will  or  tcould  generally  represents  the  act  or  state  as  something  desired  or 
■wished  by  the  subject.  —  See  also  pp.  148  -  150. 

A  foreigner,  having  fallen  into  the  Thames,  cried  out,  "  I  Tvili  be 

drowned ;  nobody  shall  help  me." 
I  was  afraid  I  would  lose  my  money. 
If  I  wished  him  to  come,  I  would  have  to  write  to  him. 
We  will  then  find  that  this  confiscation  bill  was  impolitic:  and  we 

will  have  to  sufler  for  our  folly,  in  the  protraction  of  this  war.  — 

Critlenclen. 
Death  was  threatened  to  the  first  man  who  would  rebel. 

The  overt  act  was  meant ;  and  therefore  should,  not  ivonld,  is  the  proper  word. 
"Whoever  will  neglect  his  duties,  will  suffier  the  appointed  punishment. 

20.  The  past  tense,  and  not  the  perfect  participle, 
should  be  used  to  predicate,  without  an  auxiliary,  a  past 
act  or  state. 

The  perfect  participle,  and  not  the  past  tense,  should 
be  used  after  he,  have,  and  their  variations. 
I  done  so.     They  done  the  best  they  could. 
He  run  all  the  way.     I  never  seen  it.     lie  has  took  my  hat 
I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.    Mary  has  tore  her  book. 
I  knew  he  had  wrote  it ;  for  it  was  well  writ. 
The  tree  had  fell,  and  its  branches  were  broke. 
The  apples  were  shook  off  by  the  wind. 
Toasts  were  [drank  ?  or  drunk  ?] 
You  have  chose  the  worse.  —  Irving. 
He  had  broke  the  ice.  —  Harper's  Magazine. 

21.  Avoid  needless  passive  forms,  and  generally  the 
passive  form  of  intransitive  verbs. 

He  is  possessed  of  great  talents.     AVe  are  agreed  on  this. 
My  friend  is  arrived.    He  was  already  come. 


806  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      . 

What  is  become  of  him  ?    The  tumult  is  entirely  ceased. 

The  greater  part  of  the  forces  were  retired  into  winter-quarters. 

22.  The  indicative  mood,  in  conditional  clauses,  ex- 
presses doubt  in  the  regular  time  of  the  tense ;  the  sub- 
junctive mood  expresses  doubt  or  mere  supposition,  and 
makes  the  tense  move  forward  in  time. 

If  you  be  now  willmg,  I  will  accept  the  oflfer. 

Though  he  excel  her  in  knowledge,  she  excels  him  in  behavior. 

If  1  was  you,  I  would  accept  the  offer. 

If  it  rains  to-morrow,  we  shall  not  go.  —  See  pp.  131-133. 

If  the  book  be  in  my  library,  I  will  send  it. 

If  the  book  is  found  in  my  library,  I  will  send  it. 

If  the  book  was  in  my  library,  I  would  send  it. 

If  the  book  were  in  my  library,  some  one  must  have  taken  it. 

Take  care  that  the  horse  does  not  run  away  with  you. 

Lest  and  that,  nnnexed  to  a  command,  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  (hem.    y, 
Willi  Out  folluwiug  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  also  requires  the  subjunctive  mood. 

Beware  lest  he  falls.   Be  it  ordered  that  the  law  remains  unchanged. 
If  he  comes  but  by  10  o'clock,  he  will  be  in  time. 

23.  The  verbs  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  in 
tense,  and  also  be  consistent  with  the  other  words. 

I  have  bought  it,  and  now  1  ha^e  sold  it.     Pages  136-  140. 

I  know  the  family  more  than  twenty  years. 

By  the  first  of  next  month,  I  shall  finish  this  book. 

I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  grant  my  request. 

Ye  will  not  come  unto  me,  that  ye  might  have  life. 

The  most  glorious  hero   that  ever  desolated    nations,  might  have 

mouldered  into  oblivion,  did   not  some  historian  take  him  into 

favor.  —  Irving. 
When  the  nation  would  have  rushed  again  and  again  to  war,  his 

voice  has  sheathed  the  sword  in  lasting  peace. 
*' To-morrow  ivilt  be.  Saturday"}  correct,     "To-morrow  is  Saturday"  ;  allowable. — • 
See  below,  and  also  ^  42G.  4. 

24.  Present  facte  and  unchangeable  truths  must  bo 
expressed  in  the  present  tense. 

Our  teacher  told  us  that  the  air  had  weight. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  307 

He  told  me  where  the  church  was.   (An  existing  church  was  meant.) 

Is  not  that  dear  ?  —  I  should  think  it  was. 

What  did  you  say  his  name  was  ? 

What  did  you  say  was  the  capital  of  Florida? 

He  seemed  hardly  to  know  that  two  and  two  made  four. 

No  one  suspected  that  he  was  a  foreigner. 

Plato  maintained  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  universe. 

25.  The  perfect  infinitive  denotes  something  as  past  .it 
the  time  referred  to ;  and  the  present  infinitive,  as  pres- 
ent or  future. 

I  intended  to  have  written  to  him. 
It  was  your  duty  to  have  arrested  him. 
I  expected  to  have  heard  from  him  yesterday. 
I  hoped  to  have  met  several  of  my  friends  there. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  born  about  a  thousand  years  ago. 
They  were  not  able,  as  individuals,  to  have  influenced  the  twentieth 
part  of  the  population.  —  Jefferson. 

26.  Avoid  the  needless  use  of  compound  participles  in 
stead  of  simple  participles;  and  never  use  a  compound 
participle  as  a  part  of  a  finite  verb,  unless  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  use  it. 

Such  a  poem  is  worth  being  committed  to  memory,     (committing) 
Whatever  is  worth  being  done,  is  worth  being  done  well. 
Dram-shops  are  now  being  closed  on  Sundays.     (Omit  being.) 
The  report  is  being  circulated  everywhere. 
Wheat  is  now  being  sold  for  a  dollar  a  bushel.     —  is  selling  — 
The  books  are  being  printed.   §  488.   The  new  church  is  being  built. 

27.  Avoid  the  ambiguous  or  clumsy  use  of  participles 
in  place  of  infinitives,  clauses,  or  ordinary  nouns. 

A  participial  noun  is  seldom  the  most  appropriate  expression,  when  it  does 
not  follow  u  preposition.     §  509. 

A  participial  noun  is  seldom  the  most  appropriate  expression,  when  it  is 
much  encumbered  with  modifiers. 

Cyrus  did  not  wait  for  the  Babylonians  coming  to  attack  him.  —  Rollin. 
My  being  sick  was  the  cause  of  my  being  absent. 


308  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"What  is  the  reason  of  you  not  having  gone  to  school  to-day  ? 
Going  to  law  is  giving  the  matter  in  dispute  to  the  lawyers. 
Compromising  conflicting  opinions  will  ever  be  necessary  in  a  republic. 
He  failed  reciting  his  lesson.    No  one  likes  being  in  debt. 
Her  lameness  was  caused  by  a  horse's  running  away  with  her. 
See  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar,  pp  235  and  159. 

Such  will  ever  be  the  consequences  of  youth  associating  with  vicious 

companions. 
Since  these  objects  are  stripped  of  their  importance,  we  wonder  at 

their  ever  having  been  the  cause  of  hatred  and  bloodshed. 

4.  IMPROPER  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 

G-eneral  Rule  IV.  —  All  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  it  correct,  clear,  and 
elegant. 

Any  violent  break  or  separation  in  the  natural  order  of  words  is  generally 
improper,  except  when  it  is  needed  for  great  rhetdrical  effect 

Poetry  allows  great  liberty  ui  the  arrangement  of  words;  but  any  inversion 
that  perverts  or  obscures  the  meanmg,  or  that  is  more  uncouth  than  poetical, 
should  be  avoided. 

She  praised  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding. 

Change  also  the  kind  of  expression,  when  it  ia  necessary  to  do  so. 

A  sober  and  industrious  life  he  had  nothing  of.  —  Brougham. 
Nature  mixes  the  elements  variously  and  curiously  sometimes,  it  ia 

true. 
Adversity  both  taught  you  to  think  and  to  reason.  —  Steele. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  to  give  correlatives  their  right  place  in  the  sentence. 
I  shall  neither  depend  on  you  nor  on  him. 
Not  only  he  found  her  employed,  but  pleased  and  tranquil  also. 
Our  pleasures  rather  seem  to  spring  from  things  too  low  that  lie. 
How  pleasant  it  is  at  night  no  follies  to  have  to  repent. 
His  visage  to  the  view  was  only  bare.  —  Dryden. 
Sire,  from  the  foot 

Of  that  great  throne  these  hands  liave  raised  aloft 

On  an  Olympus,  looking  down  on  mortals 

And  worshiped  by  their  awe  —  before  the  foot 

Of  that  high  throne  —  spurn  you  the  gray-haired  man  !  —  Bulwer^ 


FALSE  SYNTAX  *         809 

Special  Rules. 

1.  Nouns  and  pronouns  should  be  so  used  as  not  to 
leave  tlie  case  or  relation  ambiguous. 

The  settler  here  the  savage  slew.     (AVhich  slew  the  other  ?) 
And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed.  —  Pope. 
U  the  hid  should  leave  his  father,  he  Avould  die. 

Substitute  a  noun  for  he,  or  change  the  order  of  the  words.  —  See  p.  303. 
The  king  dismissed  his  minister  without  inquiry,  who  had  nev«r  be- 
fore done  so  unjust'an  action. 

Relative  clauses  should  generally  lie  placed  as  near  to  their  antecedents  as  possible. 
He  should  never  mai'ry  a  woman  in  high  life,  that  has  no  money. 

2.  Politeness  usually  requires  that  the  speaker  shall 
mention  the  addressed  person  first,  and  himself  last. 

I,  Mary,  and  you,  are  to  go  next  Sunday. 
Mother  said  that  I  and  you  must  stay  at  homo. 

Exception.  —  "When  a  fault  is  to  be  confessed,  or  when  responsibility  is  to  be  assumed^ 
It  is  generally  more  appropriate  for  the  spealcer  to  mcutiou  himself  first. 

3.  Adjectives,  adverbs,  and  adjuncts,  must  generally 
be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  parts  which  they  are 
designed  to  modify. 

Tlie  bad  position  of  adjectives  And  ndjnncts  is  improved  by  bringins:  them 
nearer  to  what  they  qualify;  and  adverbs  should  penerally  be  placed  before 
the  adjectives  or  adverbs  which  they  modify,  after  verbs  iii  the  .simple  form, 
and  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  i-est  of  the  verb  in  the  compontid  form. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  gradation  of  adjectives  before  a  noun.  When  this  13 
the  case,  the  adjectives  sliould  be  so  arranged  that  eacli  may  properly  qualify 
all  the  remainder  of  the  phrase  which  follows  it;  as,  "  Au  old  man,"  *'  A  re- 
spectable old  man,"  "  Three  respectable  old  men." 

I  bought  a  new  pair  of  shoes.     There  is  a  fresh  basket  of  eggs. 
I  only  recited  one  lesson.     (Only  what?) 

lie  is  only  so  when  he  is  drunk.     Some  virtues  are  only  seen  in  ad- 
1  shall  be  happy  always  to  see  my  friends.  [versity. 

He  is  considered  generally  honest.     He  is  just  such  another  man. 
They  became  even  grinders  of  knives  and  razors. 
They  all  went  to  the  party,  nearly  dressed  alike. 
Every  man  can  not  afford  to  keep  a  coach.  —  Webster. 
I  came  not  to  call  the  righteous,  but  sinners,  to  repentance.       "^ 
All  that  ghtters,  is  not  gold.   All  that  we  hear,  we  should  not  believe. 
Please  to  sing  the  three  first  stanzas.    The  two  last  classes  have  not 
recited.    Eows  of  silk  small  green  buttons. 


310  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

At  that  time  I  wished  somebody  would  hang  me  a  thousand  times. 
A  lecture  on  the  methods  of  teaching  geography  at  ten  o'clock. 
Wanted  —  a  young  man  to  take  care  of  some  horses,  of  a  religious 
turn  of  mind.  [Eastern  States. 

This  victory  seemed  to  be  like  a  resurrection  from  the  dead,  to  the 
There  is  a  remakable  union  in  his  style  of  harmony  and  ease.  —  Blair. 
The  solar  system,  space,  and  time.    The  most  prudent  and  best  men. 
Apparently,  "solar  si)ace  and  time."    Apparently,  "most  l^est."' 

4.  It  is  generally  improper  to  place  an  adverb  between 
to  and  the  rest  of  the  infinitive. 

They  were  not  such  as  to  fully  answer  my  purpose. 

He  had  men  enough  to  strongly  garrison  the  fort. 

He  knew  not  which  to  most  admire.  —  Harper's  Magazine, 

We  were  to  cautiously  and  quickly  advance  to  the  hill  above. 

5.  When  a  part  of  a  sentence  refers  to  each  of  two  or 
more  other  parts,  it  should  be  suitable  to  each. 

Cedar  is  not  so  hard,  but  more  durable,  than  oak. 

Cedar  is  not  so  hard  a«  oak,  but  more  durable.    Complete  the  construction  of  the 
first  part,  and  leave  understood  that  of  the  secoud. 

She  is  fairer,  but  not  so  amiable,  as  her  sister.  [than  the  old. 

It  is  different  and  superior  to  the  old.     It  is  diflerent  and  much  better 

He  can  and  ought  to  give  more  attention  to  his  business. 

Tiie  reward  has  already  or  will  hereafter  be  given  to  him. 

We  have  the  power  of  retaining^  altering,  and  compounding  those 

images  which  we  have  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture 

and  vision.  —  Addison. 


Frequently,  a  sentence  has  two  or  more  different  errors. 

It  is  our  duty  to  protect  this  government  and  that  flag  from  every 
assailant,  be  they  whom  they  may.  —  Douglas. 

Parents  are  of  all  other  people  the  very  worst  judges  of  their  chil- 
dren's merits  ;  for  what  they  reckon  such,  is  seldom  any  thing  elsa 
but  a  repetition  of  their  own  faults.  — Addison. 

Prepositions,  you  recollect,  connect  words  as  well  as  conjunctions ; 
how,  then,  can  you  tell  the  one  from  the  other.  —  R.  C.  Smilh. 

The  empire  of  Blefuscu  is  an  island  situated  to  the  northeast  side  of 
Lilliput,  from  whence  it  is  parted  only  by  a  channel  of  eight  hun- 
dred yards  wide.  —  Swi/L 


OBSERVATIONS.  311 

OBSEEVATIONS. 

There  are  three  preat  causes  wliich  will  always  produce  errors  in  the  use 
of  language.  Tiiesc  causes  are  logical  sense,  euphony  or  attraction,  and 
similaritii. 

Logical  Sense.  —  "We  arc  sometimes  governcrl,  in  our  use  of  Ian- 
gunge,  by  tlie  general  meaning  of  words  rather  than  by  their  grammatical 
form.  For  instance,  we  frequently  begin  a  sentence  with  a  singular  gram- 
matical term  that  implies,  however,  plurality,  or  a  class;  and  before  we 
reach  the  end  of  tlie  sentence,  we  forget  or  disregard  the  singular  term 
with  which  wc  commenced,  and  select  words  according  to  the  general  or 
logical  sense ;  as,  "  A  person  who  is  energetic  and  vigilant,  is  apt  to  suc- 
ceed in  tJie'ir  undertakings." 

Euphony  or  Attraction.  —  "When  two  words  approximate  in 
meaning,  yet  one  gives  a  better  sound  to  the  expression  than  the  other, 
we  sometimes  select  the  more  euphonious  one  even  when  it  is  less  proper. 
It  is  proba!>ly  from  this  cause  that  people  are  so  apt  to  say  them  for  those, 
and  done  for  did.  When  two  kindred  expressions  stand  near  each  other, 
one  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the  form  of  the  other,  even  when  a  differ- 
ence is  required  ;  as,  "  He  said  it  was  forty  miles  from  Baltimore  to  Wash- 
ington," for,  "  He  said  it  is  forty  miles  from  Baltimore  to  Wasliington." 
Increase  the  distance  between  the  terms,  and  there  is  less  attractive  force; 
as,  "  He  said  that  tlie  distance  from  Baltimore  to  Washington  is  forty 
miles."  "  It  was  to  him  \  to  whom  I  was  mostly  indebted,"  for,  "  It  was 
he  I  to  whom  I  was  mostly  indebted."  To  whom  being  a  forcible  part  of  the 
unexpressed  thought,  it  causes  the  utterance  o^  to  him  in  stead  of /<e. 

Similarity.  —  When  words,  or  forms  of  words,  are  nearly  alike,  as 
wore  and  worn,  broke  and  broken,  we  are  apt  to  mistake  one  for  the  other. 
It  is,  indeed,  chiefly  this  slight  variety  in  the  forms  of  words  which  has 
made  it  necessary  to  have  the  science  of  grammar. 

It  is  worthy  of  observation  that  the  foregoing  causes  of  error  have  be- 
come to  a  slight  degree  in  our  language,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  m 
some  foreign  languages,  established  laws  that  justify  the  expressions  which 
they  produce. 

1.  Too  Many  Words.    2.  Too  Few  Words. 

In  general,  the  fewer  the  words  we  use  to  express  our  meaning,  the  bet- 
ter. Many  of  the  most  admired  and  durable  expressions  in  our  literature 
arc  those  which  tell  much  in  very  few  words.  No  one  likes  to  read  through 
a  large  volume  to  get  what  miglit  have  been  told  as  well  in  a  pamphlet. 
Tautology  is  one  of  the  worst  faults  of  bad  writing.  It  consists  in  telling 
the  same  thmg,  or  nearly  the  same  thing,  again  and  again,  in  other  ways  ; 
as,  "  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers,  and  heavily  in  clouds 


812  ENGLISH  GRAMMAE.      " 

brings  on  the  day."  —  Addison.  It  is  generally  much  easier  to  find  other 
ways  of  telling  the  same  thing,  than  to  add  new  thoughts ;  and  hence  it 
very  often  happens  that  persons,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  time  or  jiaper,  add 
new  words  or  expressions  without  adding  new  thoughts  :  they  string  to- 
gether synonymous  words  and  phrases  just  as  if  they  meant  to  repeat  what 
they  have  learned  in  some  dietionary.  We  get  tired  of  seeing  a  person 
always  in  the  same  dress ,  and,  as  with  dress,  so  is  it  with  thought  and  lan- 
guage. But  while  such  use  or  repetition  of  words  as  indicates  poverty  of 
lliought  or  language  is  disagreeable,  it  should  be  remembered  tiiat  there 
can  be  emphatic  or  musical  repetition  or  fullness  that  is  sometimes  one  of 
the  greatest  beauties  of  style ;  as,  — 

"  Must  1  then  leave  you  ?    2fust  I  needs  forego 
So  good,  so  noble,  and  so  true  a  master  ? 
The  king  shall  have  ray  service ;  but  my  prayers 
Forever  and  forever  shall  be  yours."  —  Shakespeare. 
*'  By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed ; 
Ji  If  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed; 
13// foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned  ; 
Bj/  strangers  honored,  and  bi/  strangers  mourned."  —  Pope. 

The  words  most  commonly  repeated  for  emphasis  are  articles,  conjunc 
tions,  prepositions,  i)roTiouns,  and  small  adjectives  or  adverbs.  A  long 
scries  of  terms  is  somctiines  elegantly  gathered  into  groups,  and  thus  a 
compromise  is  made  between  ellipsis  throughout  and  fullness  throughout; 
as,  "  1  could  detuonstrato  to  you  that  the  whole  of  your  poluical  ooiiduct 
has  been  one  continued  series  of  weakness,  temerity,  and  despotism;  of 
blundering  ignorance  and  wanton  negligence;  R.nd  of  the  most  notoiious 
servility,  incapacity,  and  corruption."  —  Chatham. 

"Whenever  words  merely  encumber  the  sentence,  or  do  not  improve  its 
clearness  and  force,  they  should  be  omitted ;  but  great  care  should  bo 
talicn,  in  tlic  omission  of  words,  to  avoid  obscurity,  ambiguity,  and  bad 
syntax,  for  these  are  the  chief  faults  of  excessive  ellipsis.  Hence,  when 
the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sentence,  weaken  its  force,  or  bo 
attended  with  impropriety,  they  should  be  inserted. 

Much  of  what  is  now  considered  erroneous  English  is  simply  old  Ecg-» 
lish  that  was  once  in  fashion  and  in  good  rejKiie. 

Our  old  writers  sometimes  used,  in  imitation  of  the  classic  languages, 
double  comparatives  or  superlatives  and  double  negatives,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  effect.  Two  negative^;  are  still  sometimes  used  so,  when  one  does 
not  destroy  the  effect  of  the  other;  as,  "  I  not  only  never  said  so,  but  never 
thought  so."  Sometimes  two  negatives  are  elegantly  used  to  express  an 
affirmation,  especially  when  one  of  the  negatives  is  a  prefix;  as,  "  Ho  is 
not  u/ischooled  in  the  ways  of  the  world" ;  i,  e.,  he  is  shrewd  enough.    It 


OBSERVATIONS.  313 

is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  or  nor  should  be  used. 
When  a  preceding  negative  adjective  or  adverb  plainly  modifies  both  con- 
nected parts,  or  may  he  preferable  ;  but  when  the  latter  part  is  but  faintly 
affected  by  the  preceding  negative,  or  when  the  parts  are  long,  nor  may  be 
preferable. 

A  is  sometimes  elegantly  omitted  before  few  and  Utile,  to  give  a  negative 
meaning;  and  inserted,  to  give  a  positive  meaning;  as,  "He  has  ^ew 
friends  " ;  i.e.,  almost  none.  "  He  has  afeio  friends  " ;  i.  e.,  some  at  least 
The  phrase  kind  of  a  or  sort  of  a  is  generally  improper;  though  it  may 
sometimes  be  allowable  because  needed ;  as,  "  What  kind  of  paper  [the  mO' 
terial]  have  you  ?  "  differs  from  "  What  kind  of  a  paper  [document]  have 
you?"  When  connected  woids  require  different  forms  of  the  indefinite 
article,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  repeat  the  article  for  this  cause  alone. 

Absolute  comparisons,  without  the  needed  other  or  else,  occur  so  fre- 
quently in  good  writers  that  they  are  perhaps  sometimes  allowable  by  the 
figure  synecdoche  or  hyperbole. 

Ohjective  relative  pronouns  can  be  sometimes  omitted ;  but  nominative 
relatives  can  seldom  be  omitted  with  propriety,  except  in  verse. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  subject  before  the  second  of  two  con- 
nected verbs  that  differ  in  mood  and  tense,  or  imply  contrast,  unless  the 
parts  are  unusually  long,  or  the  contrast  is  marked  and  emphatic.  "  Many 
of  them  were  of  good  families,  and  had  held  commissions  in  the  civil  war. 
Their  pay  was  far  higher  than  that  of  the  most  favored  regiment  of  our 
time,^  and  would  in  that  age  have  hem  thought  a  respectable  provision  for  the 
son  of  a  country  gentleman."  — Macaulay.  "So  large  a  sum  was  ex- 
pended, but  expended  in  vain."  —  Id. 

The  omission  of  the  nominatives  in  hasty  business  letters,  is  generally  in- 
elegant; for  it  implies  an  affectation,  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  of  being 
exceedingly  busy. 

There  are  some  expressions  in  which  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should 
be  used  after  hid,  dare,  feel,  make,  sec,  etc. ;  as,  "  My  horse  bids  fair  [prom- 
ises] to  take  the  premium."  "I  dared  [challenged]  him  to  bet."  "I  feel 
it  to  be  my  duty."  "  How  could  you  make  out  to  get  along  ?  "  **  I  can 
not  see  to  write  this  letter."  —  See  §  482. 

Choice  of  Words. 

In  writers  of  the  last  century  we  frequently  find  an  used  before  sounded 
K  and  before  ti  long.  An'is  still  preferred  before  sounded  h  when  the  chief 
accent  is  on  the  second  syllable  of  the  word,  for  then  the  h  is  but  faintly 
heard.  But  when  the  A  is  forcibly  aspirated,  a  is  sometimes  preferred.  In 
this  country  we  usually  say  a  hotel;  but  the  English  generally  prefer  an 
hotel.    "  A  hotel."  —  Noah  Webster ;  "  An  hotel."  —  Russell,  Kinglake,  etc. 

It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  adverbial  or  the  ad- 
U 


814  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

jective  form  of  a  word  should  he  nsed.  The  adjective  expresses  the  quality 
of  the  suhjcct,  and  the  adverb  the  manner  of  the  act ;  as,  "  She  looks  cold" 
[is  cold};  "  She  looks  coldlij  [in  a  cold  7nan7}ti']  on  him."  (See  p.  175.) 
Sometimes  languaj^e  needs  two  adverbs  from  the  same  word ;  and  then 
one  usually  tak^^s  the  regular  adverbial  form,  and  the  other  retains  the  ad- 
jective form ;  as,  "  The  lesson  is  hard ;  and  I  can  hardly  learn  it,  though  I 
have  been  studying  hard."  We  say,  "lie  came  there  previously,"  or  wo 
choose  the  adverbial  form  when  the  word  stands  by  itself;  but  when  to  is 
added,  some  writers  say  previously  to  and  some  previous  to.  The  analogy 
of  contrary  to  and  according  to  seems  to  be  converting  this  phi-ase  into  a 
preposition  of  the  same  class  with  themselves.  The  analogy  seems  to  be 
also  affecting,  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  words  agreeable  and  conformable. 
"  I  feel  \bad?  or  l>adly?]  about  the  matter."  Analogy  is  in  favor  of  bad ; 
but  custom  is  in  favor  of  badly,  (See  Kerl's  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  248.)  In 
discussing  a  subject  by  numerical  divisions,  whether  we  should  say  Jirst, 
secondly,  thirdly,  or  Jirst,  second,  third,  etc.,  depends  chiefly  on  whether  we 
refer  to  the  verb  or  to  the  divisions.  "  Page  twenty-fifth  "  is  correct,  and 
"page  twenty-five"  is  also  correct;  for  twenty-five  is  here  used  as  a  noun, 
which  represents  page  by  the  figure  synecdoche,  and  is  therefore  put  in 
apposition  Aviih  page. 

What  is  taught  about  relative  pronouns  in  grammars,  rests  perhaps  on 
a  sandy  foundation  ;  for  there  are  good  English  writers  who  simply  apply 
who  to  persons  and  which  to  all  other  objects,  and  who  use  that  and  as 
simply  for  euphony,  or  when  who  or  which  would  be  less  appropriate. 

When  an  antecedent  is  a  figurative  word,  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
select  the  pronoun  in  accordance  with  the  meaning  of  that  part  of  the  sen- 
tence in  which  the  pronoun  stands;  as,  She  was  a  conspicuous  flower, 
whom  he  had  sensibility  to  love,  ambition  to  attempt,  and  skill  to  win."  — 
Wordsworth.  "  Northumberland,  thou  ladder,  by  which  my  cousin  Boling- 
broke  ascends  my  throne."  —  Shakespeare.  "  A  dauntless  soul  erect,  who 
smiled  on  death."  —  Thomson. 

\Ve  shall  arranpre  our  remaining  remarks  under  this  head,  according  to  the  gramnaati- 
ical  properties  as  given  on  page  2. 

Gender.  —  To  a  class  of  persons,  comprising  both  sexes,  the  mascu- 
line noun  is  applied,  rather  than  the  feminine.  "  The  poets  of  America" 
may  include  the  poetesses.  When  I  say,  "  She  is  the  best  poetess,"  I  com- 
pare her  with  female  poets  only ;  but  when  I  say,  "  She  is  the  best  poet,"  I 
compare  her  with  both  male  and  female  poets.  It  is  proper  to  say,  "  An 
authoress  sat  next  to  me  at  the  table  ";  because  it  may  be  a  part  of  the 
speaker's  wish  to  specify  the  sex,  and  there  is  no  other  word  in  the  sentence 
to  express  it.  But  it  would  be  hardly  improper  to  say,  "  She  is  the  author 
of  the  book  " ;  because  the  sex  is  not  important  to  the  assertion,  or  it  is 


OBSERVATIONS.  315 

sufficiently  specified  by  the  pronoun  she.  So,  "  She  is  my  accuser,'*  is  a 
proper  expression  ;  for  the  word  accusercss  is  uncommon,  and  is  not  needed 
to  show  the  sex. 

Our  language  is  defective  in  not  having,  in  the  third  person,  a  singular 
pronoun  for  the  common  gender.  This  often  leads  to  an  improper  use  of 
t/icy,  their,  etc.  ]n  such  cases  the  masculine  pronoun  is  preferred  when  the 
antecedent  is  a  noun  of  the  common  gender,  and  denotes  a  person  ;  and 
both  the  masculine  and  the  feminine  pronoun  are  used  when  the  antecedent 
comprises  both  a  masculine  and  a  feminine  noun.  To  small  children  and 
to  inferior  animals  the  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  applied. 

Person  and  Number.  —  In  regard  to  number,  writers  occasionally 

allow  themselves  to  be  governed  by  the  logical  sense,  or  by  euphony  or 

attraction. 

"  In  Hawick  twinkled  mani/  a  light, 

Behind  him  soon  thri/  set  in  night,"  —  Scott. 

They,  in  this  sentence,  is  allowable  ;  because  the  clauses  are  not  so  closely  connected 
that  the  pronoun  it  would  preserve  the  full  sense. 

"Neither  history  nor  tradiuon  furnish  such  information."  —  Roliertson. 
"A  silk  dress  or  a  flowered  bonnet  were  then  great  rarities."  —  FUtit. 
"  Where  Leonidas,  with  his  chosen  band,  were  cut  off."  —  Kames. 
These  plurals,  though  in  accordance  with  the  syntax  of  the  Classic  languages,  are  not 
allowable  in  modern  English. 

"  A  coach  and  six  is  in  our  time  never  seen  except  as  a  part  of  some 
pageant."  —  Macaulaij.  "  Two  thousand  a  year  was  a  large  revenue  for  a 
barrister." —  7c?. 

*'  Early  to  bed,  and  early  to  rise. 
Makes  a  man  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise."  —  Franklin. 

These  singular  verbs  are  probably  allowable,  because  all  that  the  subject  denotes  i3 
taken  as  but  one  thing  —  See  p.  144. 

Milton,  in  imitation  of  Greek  and  Latin  syntax,  frequently  uses  a  singular  verb  after 
two  nominatives  joined  by  and,  where,  in  modern  English,  a  plural  verb  is  required. 

An  abstract  number  may  have  a  singular  verb,  where  a  concrete  number 
would  require  a  plural  verb;  as,  "Five  from  seven  \  leaves  two";  "Five 
apples  [taken]  from  seven  apples  |  leave  two  apples." 

Most  nominatives  that  consist  of  numbers  may  be  classed  with  collective 
nouns ;  and  they  are  about  as  indefinite  in  syntax.  In  addition,  the  verb 
must  of  course  be  plural ;  in  subtraction,  division,  or  proportion,  it  may  bo 
singular  or  plural,  according  as  the  number  is  abstract  or  concrete.  In  frac- 
tions and  comjwund  numbers  that  must  be  read  plurally,  the  verb  should,  we 
think,  be  generally /j/iim/ ;  though  the  principle  that  a  plural  term  some- 
times denotes  a  single  object,  or  that  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  and  denote  but  one  person  or  thing,  may  occasionally  justify 
the  use  of  the  singular  verb.  In  multiplication,  the  prevailing  custom  is,  to 
make  the  verb  plural  when  the  word  times  is  used.  —  See  p.  224, 


316  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


"When  a  plural  substantive  precedes,  some  writers  use  as  follow ;  but  most 
writers  prefer  as  follows,  whether  the  preceding  substantive  is  singular  or 
plural. 

"  "What 's  justice  to  a  man,  or  laws, 
That  never  comes  within  their  claws."  —  Hiidlbras. 
Justice  is  nearer  to  Ix,  and  lawn  to  their  ,-  hence  the  difference,  and  both  are  proper 
by  attraction.    Such  expressions  as  one  or  more  persons  are  also  now  considered  allow- 
able on  the  same  principle. 

Wc  say,  "  The  Old  and  New  Testaments,"  in  stead  of  "  The  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  New  Testament";  and  on  the  same  principle,  "Bancroft's 
and  Palfrey's  IJistories^^  (Atlantic  Monthly),  "Glover's,  Mason's,  and 
Patterson's  regiments'^  (Irving),  seem  to  have  been  used.  But  English 
grammars  teach  that  we  should  say,  "Bancroft's  and  Palfrey's  llisiory." 

Such  expressions  as  "  A  ten  foot  pole,"  "A  twenty-cen^  piece,"  "A  five- 
dol/ar  note,"  etc.,  are  proper ;  but  a  hyphen  should  always  be  used  to  con- 
nect the  parts.  The  noun,  in  sueh  expressions,  being  used  as  an  adjective, 
loses  the  properties  of  a  noun.  If  these  singulars  should  be  plural,  then  it 
would  not  seem  unreasonable  to  require  he  to  be  him  or  them  in  the  follow- 
ing example  :  "  They  brought  //e-goats." 

Case.  —  In  regard  to  the  possessive  case  and  kindred  forms,  there  are 
some  ambiguities,  or  shades  of  meaning,  that  are  worthy  of  notice.  The 
phrase  "  God's -love,"  for  instance,  can  be  so  used  as  to  signify  cither  his 
love  toward  us  or  our  love  lo  him  ;  and  "  The  doctor's  treatment "  is 
rather  active,  while  "  The  treatment  of  the  doctor  "  is  rather  passive. 

It  is  remarkable  that  a  possessive  appositive  noun  does  not  always  re- 
quire the  possessive  form,  while  such  a  pronoun  must  always  have  it. 
"  Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Maker  wise  and  good."  —  Broion's  Grammar. 
The  foregoing  sentence  is  correct;  but,  misled  by  this  grammar  or  principle,  Mrs. 
Sigouroey  wrote  improperly, — 

*•  His  curse  be  on  him.     He,  who  knoweth     [,  —  his'\ 
Where  the  lightnings  hide."  —  Mrs.  Siyoiirneij. 
By  the  figure  enallage,  the  objective  case  is  allowed  ia  a  few  poetic  or 
idiomatic  expressions ;  as,  — 

"  Fare  thee  well,  thou  first  and  fairest ! 
Fare  thee  well,  thou  best  and  dearest!  **  —  Bums, 
•♦  Fare  thou  well "  would  be  so  grammatical  as  to  spoil  the  poetry. 
Voice.  —  The  scarcity  of  verbal  forms  in  our  language  has  always 
caused  some  perplexity  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  expressing  verbs  in  the 
progressive  passive  sense.     'J'here  was  at  one  lime  a  strong  tendency  to 
adopt  the  preposition  a  and  the  present  participle;  as,  "Jack  always  liked 
to  be  present  when  money  was  a  pai/iiip  or  receiving." — Swift.     In  the 
writings  of  Swift  are  many  specimens  of  this  construction  ;  but  the  present 
and  established  practice  seems  to  be  what  we  have  taught  on  pp.  141  and  307. 


OBSERVATIONS.  317 

Mood.  —  Formerly,  the  subjnnctive  mood  was  extended  over  all  the 
tenses  of  the  indicative  mood  and  the  potential ;  or  it  was  used  when  simply 
doubt  was  implied,  as  well  as  when  both  doubt  and  futurity  affected  the 
tense.  The  blundering  and  contradictory  teachings  of  grammarians  in  re- 
gard to  this  mood  have  caused  the  public  to  discard  it  almost  altogether. 
But  there  is  for  this  mood  a  proper  and  well-established  province,  which 
we  have  endeavored  to  show  on  pp.  132,  133,  304 ;  and  if  the  mood  should 
ever  be  expelled  from  this  field  of  expression,  our  language  will  be  the 
poorer  for  the  change. 

Tense.  —  See  pp.  from  136  to  160  ;  also  pp.  306  and  307. 

"We  sometimes  find  an  obsolescent  subjunctive  form  in  good  modern 
writers  ;  as,  "  If  he  have  given,'^  etc.  —  Wayland.  Such  forms  are  justifi- 
able simply  as  being  remnants  or  imitations  of  old  style.  We  sometimes 
meet  with  a  person  who  prefers  some  old-fashioned  article  of  dress. 

Comparison.  —  A  word  that  is  not  a  pure  superlative,  can  some- 
times be  used  in  speaking  of  two  objects  only;  as,  "  A  trochee  has  i\\c  first 
syllable  accented."  And  perhaps  the  superlative  degree  can  be  occasion- 
ally applied  to  one  of  two  when  we  do  not  refer  to  inferior  objects,  but 
chiefly  aim  to  impress  the  idea  that  the  object  is  not  exceeded.  Since 
there  are  adjectives  that  have  a  fixed  or  absolute  meaning,  we  are  some- 
times at  a  loss  for  words  that  express  approximations  to  this  fixed  or  high 
state  of  quality.  In  such  cases  it  seems  best  to  apply  the  words  to  the 
partial  meaning,  and  then  compare  them.  "  Aristides  was  the  most  just  of 
the  Athenians,"  is  better  than  "Aristides  was  the  least  unjust  of  the  Athe- 
nians "  ;  for  the  latter  implies  that  the  Athenians  were  all  knaves,  and  he 
was  simply  not  the  worst  one.  Such  expressions  as  "  the  most  nearly  just" 
have  sometimes  a  stiff  and  pedantic  air. 

Position  of  Words* 

A  modifier  naturally  refers  its  meaning  to  the  nearest  word  that  is  suit' 
able  to  receive  it ;  and  since  modifiers  are  numerous  and  various,  and  can 
refer  to  many  different  words,  to  give  the  best  position  to  the  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses,  which  are  modifiers,  becomes  one  of  the  chief  concerns  of  every 
writer.  Ambiguity,  obscurity,  and  sometimes  absurdity,  harshness,  or 
feebleness,  are  the  chief  faults  of  bad  arrangement  of  words.  ,^ 

When  a  numeral  and  a  cardinal  adjective  precede  a  noun,  the  numeral 
adjective  is  generally  placed  before  the  other;  as,  "  The  first  two  men," 
not  "  The  two  first  men  '* ;  for  there  can  not  be  two  firsts.  When  adjectives 
or  other  modifiers  precede  their  noun,  the  more  accidental  or  comprehen- 
sive must  generally  be  placed  before  those  which  are  less  so ;  as,  "  Me- 
chanics' Bank,"  "National  Mechanics'  Bank,"  or  "Mechanics'  National 
Bank."  The  adjectives  all,  such,  many,  what,  both,  and  adjectives  preceded 
by  too,  so,  as,  or  how,  usually  precede  the  article  when  used  with  it. 


PART   VI. 


FIGURES. 

667.  A  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  form, 
construction,  or  application  of  words,  for  the  sake  of 
brevity,  force,  or  beauty.* 

668.  Figures  may  be  divided  into  three  classes :  — 

1.  Figures  of  Ortho^aphy,  which  are  deviations  from  the  ordinary 
spelhng  or  pronunciation  of  words. 

2.  Figures  of  Syntax,  which  arc  deviations  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction of  words, 

3.  Figures  of  Rhetoric,  which  are  deviations  from  the  ordinary  mean- 
ing or  application  of  words. 

FIGURES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

669.  The  principal  figures  of  orthography  are,  — 

1.  Aphoer'esis,  the  shortening  of  a  word  by  taking  a 
letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning ;  as,  'gainst  for 
against, 

Ex.  —  There  's  a  bliss  beyond  all  that  the  minstrel  hath  told. 

A  shortened  word  is  thus  sometimes  made  a  part  of  an  adjoining  vtotA. 

2.  Sjm'cope,  the  shortening  of  a  word  by  taking  a 

•  The  end  to  be  reached  is  frequently  gained- indirectly  rather  than  directly.  Thus,  in 
verse  an  inferior  expression  is  sometimes  allowed  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  greater 
beauty  of  rhythm  or  rhyme. 


nGUEES.  819 

letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle ;  as,  recCning  for  red- 
dening, 

Ex.  —  O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave. 

3.  Apoc'opo,  the  shortening  of  a  word  by  taking  a 
letter  or  syllable  from  the  end ;  as,  tK  for  the ;  Ben  for 
Benjamin. 

Ex.  —  The  morn  is  tip  again,  the  dewy  morn. 

4.  Pros'thesis,  the  lengthening  of  a  word  by  prefixing 

a  syllable. 
Ex.  —  Far  adown  the  long  aisle  sacred  music  is  streaming. 

5.  Parago'ge,  the  lengthening  of  a  word  by  annexing 
a  syllable  ;  as,  Johnny  for  John. 

Ex.  —  Oft,  in  the  stilhj  night,  ere  slumber's  chain  has  bound  me. 

Elision  is  the  omission  of  letters;  ellipsis,  the  omission  of  words. 

When  a  word  is  lengthened  by  pronouncing  suppressed  final  ed,  the  figure 
may  be  called  Dicer' esis;  and  when  a  syllable  is  blended  with  another  in  pro- 
nunciation, the  figure  may  be  called  Syncer' esis. 

6.  Tme'sis,  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts 
of  a  compound;  as,  "on  which  side  soever''  for  "on 
whichsoever  side." 

Ex.  —  The  century-living  crow  that  caws  the  live  day  long, 

FIGURES  OF   SYNTAX. 
670.  The  principal  figures  of  syntax  are,  — 
1.  Ellipsis,  the  omission  of  words  ;  usually,  the  omis- 
sion of  such  words  as  must  be  supplied  in  parsing. 

hi  analyzing  and  parsing,  only  such  words  should  be  supplied  as  are  neces- 
Bary  to  complete  the  construction.  —  See  page  214. 

Under  the  head  of  ellipsis  can  probably  be  included  the  following  figures; 
though  in  parsing  examples  under  them,  it  will  generally  be  sufficient  simply 
to  mention  the  figure,  without  supplying  words. 

Aposiope'sis,  the  leaving  of  something  unsaid. 

Ex.  —  Who7n  I —  but  first 't  is  best  the  billows  to  restrain. 
Say,  in  parsing,  that  whom  is  in  the  objective  case  5  but,  by  the  figure  dposiopcsls^  it 
has  no  govtrning  word  expressed. 


820  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Zeug'ma;  the  referring  of  a  word  to  two  different 
ones,  when  m  strict  syntax  it  can  agree  with  only  one  of 
them. 

"  In  him  who  is,  or  him  who  finds,  7i  friend."  —  Pope.  Page  146,  §  5. 
"  AH-  of  them  knowing,  and  known  by,  our  coachman"  —  Dickens, 
**  One  or  more  scape-goats."  —  Irving.  Supply  scape-goat  in  parsing. 

Say,  in  parsing,  that /r?enrf  is  used,  by  the  figure  zeugma^  as  a  predicate-nominative 
after  in,  and  also  as  the  object  of  Jind.i.  (It  seems  necessary  to  extend  somewhat  the 
ordinary  meaning  of  zeugmay  and  we  have  done  so  accordingly.) 

2.  Ple'onasm,  the  use  of  more  words  than  the  sense 
or  the  syntax  absohitely  requires. 

"  One  of  the  few,  the  immortal  names,  tJiat  were  not  born  to  die.** 

Either  the  same  word  is  repeated,  or  an  equivalent  expression  is  used. 

8.  Enallage;  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one 
form  of  a  word,  for  another. 

"  Thinks  I  to  myself,  I  '11  stop."  —  J.  Taijlor.     So,  "  Methinks." 
"  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in  the  wall."  —  Dlmond, 
"And  the  idols  are  broke  in  the  temple  of  Baal." — Byron. 
Generally  speaking,  this  figure  should  not  be  used  when  it  can  be  avoided. 

4.  Inversion,  or  Hyper'baton ;  inverted  syntax,  or 
the  transposition  of  words,  as  in  verse. 


671.  An  Ar'chaism  is  a  word  or  expression  imitative 
of  ancient  style  or  usage. 

•'  On  which  thilk  wight  that  has  y- gazing  been, 
Kens  the  forthcoming  rod  —  unpleasing  sight,  I  ween**  —  Shenstone. 

672.  Mimicry   is   the  imitation  of  another  person's 
improper  use  of  language. 

Ex.  —  Mrs.  Gilpin.    So  you  must  ride  on  horseback  after  we. 

Say,  in  parsing,  that  the  nominative  we  is  used,  by  mimicry,  for  the  objective  us. 

Justice  Sliallow.     Let  us  examination- \hQ.?,e,  men. 
To  this  figure  should  be  referred  all  imitations  ol  brogues  and  dialects. 
The  last  two  figures  belong  to  both  figures  of  orthography  and  figures  of  syntax. 


FIGURES.  821 

FIGURES  OF   RHETORIC. 

673.  The  following  are  the  most  important  rhetorical 
figures :  — 

1.  Sim'ile,  7.  Antithesis,  13.  Euphemism, 

2.  Metaphor,  8.  Irony,  14.  Interrogation, 

3.  Allegory,  9.  Paralip'sis,  15.  Exclamation, 

4.  Meton'ymy,  10.  Hyper'bole,  16.  Apos'trophe, 

5.  Synec'doche,  11.  Climax,  17.  Vision, 

6.  Personification,  12.  Allusion,  18.  Onomatopoe'ia.^ 

674.  A  Sim'ile  is  an  express  comparison. 

Ex.  —  "  The  music  of  Carryl  was,  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are 

past,  sweet  and  mournful  to  the  soul."  —  Ossian. 

A  simile  is  a  comparison  usually  expressed  by  means  of  like  or  as. 

The  teacher  shoulil  read  to  the  class,  while  he  hears  the  lesson,  what  is  said  about  each 
of  these  figures  ia  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar. 

675.  A  X^etaplior  is  an  implied  comparison. 
Ex. —  Life  is  an  islJimus  between  two  eternities. 

A  metaphor  is  a  word  suitable  to  one  object,  applied  to  another  object,  on 
account  of  some  resemblance. 

Sometimes  a  metaphor  comprises  two  or  more  words  ;  as,  "  Sin  is  a  bitter  sweet,  and 
the  Jine  colors  of  the  serpent  by  no  means  mn/ce  amends  for  the  poison  of  his 
eting."  —  South.  I3ut  when  the  comparison  extends  beyond  a  sentence,  the  figure  be- 
comes an  allegory. 

676.  An  Allegory  is  a  fictitious  story  about  one  thing, 
generally  designed  to  teach  some  moral  or  practical  wis- 
dom about  another.     It  is  continued  metaphor. 

See  Banyan's  Piljrrim's  Progress. 

Tlie  teacher  should  refer  to  an  allegory  in  the  reading-book. 

To  allegory  haXon^  parables  and  fables. 

677.  A  Meton3n2iy  is  the  name  of  one  object  applied  to 
a  different  one,  from  some  other  relation  than  resemblance. 
Ex.  —  "  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets" ;  i.  <?.,  their  tcritings. 

"  "We  drank  but  one  bottle" ;  i.  e.,  the  contents  of  but  one  bottle. 
The  most  common  instances  of  this  figure  are  those  in  which  the  cause  is 
put  for  the  effect,  the  effect  for  the  cause,  the  container  for  the  thing  con- 
tained, or  the  sign  for  the  thing  signified. 

14*  U 


822  •  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  transfer  of  an  attribute  to  a  related  object  may  also  be  called  metonymy^ 
as,  "  my  adventurous  song;  "  "  his  weanj  way;  "  '^jovial  wine." 

C78.  A  Synecdoche  is  the  name  of  a  part  applied  to 
the  whole,  or  that  of  the  whole  applied  to  a  part. 
As  when  we  say  /<?a,  for  supper;  or  gold^  for  money. 

Synecdoche  is  simply  the  application  of  a  word  to  more  or  less,  of  the  same  thing,  than 
the  word  stiictly  denotes. 

C79.  Personification  represents  as  persons,  or  as  ra- 
tional or  living  beings,  objects  that  are  not  such  in  reaHty. 
Ex.  —  "  There  Honor  comes  a  pilgrim  gray."  —  Collins. 

"When  the  grammatical  properties  of  a  word  are  changed  by  personification 
or  metonymy,  tlie  figure  is  sometimes  called  Sijllepsis;  as,  "•  1  he  ship,  with 
her  snowy  sails."  '•  Philip  went  down  to  the  ciif^  of  Samaria,  and  preached 
Christ  nnto  them." 

680.  Antithesis  is  the  contrasting  of  different  objects, 
actions,  qualities,  or  circumstances. 

Ex.  —  Virtue  ennobles,  and  vice  debases. 
*'  They  heard  the  clarion's  iron  clang, 
The  breeze  which  through  the  roses  sang.** —  Croly, 

681.  Irony  is  the  sneering  use  of  w^ords  with  a  con- 
trary meaning. 

To  call  a  fool  a  Solomon,  or  to  praise  what  we  mean  to  disparage, 

is  iroj^T/. 

The  expression  becomes  more  sarcastic  when  the  speaker  seems  to  adopt  the  real 
thoughts  or  feelings  of  the  person  attacked. 

682.  Paralipsis  is  the  pretended  omission  or  conceal- 
ment of  what  is  thus  really  suggested  and  enforced. 

Ex.  —  "I  will  not  call  him  villain,  for  it  would  be  unparliament- 
ary." —  Grattan.  "  Let  me  not  think  —  Frailty  thy  name  is  woman." 
—  Shakespeare. 

683.  Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  usually  represents 
things  as  greater  or  less,  better  or  worse,  than  they  really 
are. 

Ex.  —  "  Here  Orpheus  sings ;  trees,  moving  to  the  sound, 

Start  from  their  roots,  and  form  a  shade  around." — Pope. 


FIGURES.  823 

684.  Climas  means  ladder.  It  is  a  gradual  climbing, 
or  rise  of  thougbt,  from  things  inferior  to  greater  or  bet- 
ter.    When  reversed,  it  is  called  anticlimax. 

Ex.  —  "  A  Scotch  mist  becomes  a  shower;  and  a  shower,  a  flood  ; 
and  a  flood,  a  storm  •,  and  a  storm,  a  tempest ;  and  a  tempest,  thun- 
der and  lightninji;  and  thunder  and  lightning,  heaven-quake  and 
earthquake."  —  Wilson. 

Anticlimax:  "Great  men,  —  such  as  Washington,  Adams,  Jefferson,  Aaron 
Burr,  Stephen  Arnold,  and  the  worthy  friend  of  my  opponent." 

€85.  Allusion  is  the  use  of  an  expression  that  recalls 

incidentally  some   interesting  fact,    custom,  writing,  or 

saying. 

Jiix.  —  *'  Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed. 

Close  at  my  elbow  stir  their  lemonade."  —  Holmes. 

Parody  is  a  continued  allusion  or  resemblance  in  style. 

"  'T  is  the  last  rose  of  summer  left  blooming  alone ; 

All  her  lovely  companions  are  faded  and  gone." 

Parody  :  "  'T  is  the  last  golden  dollar  lefl  shining  alone ; 

All  its  brilliant  companions  are  squandered  and  gone.** 

A  Pun  is  a  play  on  the  sound  or  meanings  of  a  word. 

Ex  —  "  The  sutlers,"  says  a  newspaper,  "  are  about  to  be  organized  into 
a  miUtary  company.  We  "rejoice  to  hear  it;  for  we  think  if  they  were  thor- 
oughly organized  in  one  body,  no  enemy  could  withstand  their  charr/es  /  " 

686.  Euphemism  is  a  softened  mode  of  speech  for 
what  would  be  disagreeable  or  offensive  if  tol4  in  the 
plainest  language. 

Cushi  did  not  say  to  David,  "  Absalom  is  killed";  but,  "il/ay  all 
the  enemies  of  the  king  be  as  that  young  man  is." 

687.  Interrogation  is  a  mode  of  strengthening  a  state- 
ment by  an  appeal  in  the  form  of  question. 

Ex.  —  Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  ? 

688.  Exclamation  is  usually  an  abrupt  or  broken 
mode  of  speech,  designed  to  express  more  strongly  the 
emotions  of  the  speaker. 

Ex.  —  How  glorious,  how  majestic,  yonder  setting  sun ! 


324  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

689.  Apostrophe  is  a  sudden  turning-away,  in  the 
fullness  of  emotion,  to  address  some  person  or  thing. 

Ex.  —  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  |  0  Death  !  where  is 
thy  sting  ?     O  Grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?  "  —  Bible. 

690.  Vision  represents  sometliing  that  is  past,  future, 
absent,  or  simply  imagined,  as  if  it  were  really  present. 

Ex.  — "  Soldiers !  from  yonder  pyramids,  forty  centuries  look 
down  upon  you ! "  —  Bonaparte, 

691.  Onomatopoeia  is  such  an  imitation  in  the  sound 
of  the  words  as  may  correspond  with  the  sense,  or  sug- 
gest it. 

"  The  sound  should  seem  an  echo  to  the  sense."  —  Pope. 

Ex.  —  "  Away  they  went,  pell-mell,  hurry-skurry,  wild  buffalo, 
wild  horse,  wild  huntsman,  with  clang  and  clatter,  and  whoop  and 
halloo,  that  made  the  forests  ring."  —  Irving, 

To  this  figure  may  also  be  referred  such  new-coined  expressions 
as  bamboozle^  skedaddle^  and  circumbendibus. 


Sometimes  two  or  more  fig:urcs  are  involved  in  the  same  expression  ;  as, 
"  Hero  the  sword  and  scpptre  rust ;  — 
Earth  to  earth,  and  dust  to  dust "  ;  metonymy  and  metaphor. 
In  the  use  of  rhetorical  figures,  there  are  four  very  common  species  of 
error  that  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

1.  Figures  should  be  well-founded  or  becoming,  and  more  suitable 
than  plain  language.  "  The  liberties  of  rising  states  were  shackled  by 
paper  chains."  —  Bancroft. 

The  phrase  paper  chains  suggests  nothing  formidable. 

2.  Figures  should  not  be  too  numerous,  nor  carried  too  far. 

3.  Figures  should  not  be  improperly  mixed,  or  incongruous  figures 
should  not  be  made  parts  of  the  same  picture. 

*'  I  hridte  in  my  struggling  muse  in  vain. 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain."  —  Addison. 
That  is,  his  muse  is  a  monster,  partly  horse  and  partly  ship. 

4.  Literal  and  figurative  language  should  not  be  mixed.  [Jeffh-son. 
"  The  colonics  were  not  yet  ripe  \  to  hid  adieu  to  British  connection."  — 
XS^  Many  of  the  meanings  of  words  are  but  faded  figures. 


*    VERSIFICATION.  325 

VERSIFICATION. 
692,  VcrsiScation  is  the  art  of  makincr  verse. 
093.  Verse  is  the  musical  arrangement  of  words,  ac- 
cording to  some  regular  accent. 

Also  pauses  and  rhymes  are  generally  used  as  elements  of  verse. 

Verse  is  to  prose  as  dancing  is  to  walking;  and  the  accent  in 
verso  corresponds  to  the  beat  in  music. 

The  word  verse  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  single  line  of  poetry,  sometimes  to 
a  stanza,  and  sometimes  to  lines  of  poetry  collectively  considered. 

The  accent  which  runs  through  verse,  affords  pleasure  to  the  mind  by 
the  regular  pulsations;  this  pleasure  is  increased  bj  final  and  caesural 
pauses,  which  divide  the  verse  into  lines  and  shorter  divisions  by  agreeable 
suspensions ;  these  parts  or  lines  arc  frequently  made  further  agreeable  by 
terminations  similar  in  sound,  which  are  called  rhymes ;  and  the  pleasure 
of  rhyming  lines  is  enhanced  by  combining  them  into  harmonious  groujjs 
called  stanzas.  The  language  itself  is  colored,  vivid,  and  striking,  by  being 
the  language  of  passion  or  imagination  as  well  as  of  good  common  sense. 
Such  is,  in  a  nutshell,  the  verse-making  art. 

To  show  the  various  elements  of  beauty  to  the  best  advantage,  verse  is 
usually  arranged  in  lines,  as  in  the  following  specimen :  — 
"  Know  ye  the  land  |  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle  j 

Are  emblems  of  de'cds  |  that  are  done  in  their  clime ;  || 
Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  love  of  the  turtle, 
Now  melt  into  sorrow,  now  madden  to  crime  1 
.   Know  ye  the  land  of  the  cedar  and  vine. 
Where  the  flowers  ever  blossom,  the  beams  ever  shine  ?  " 

694,  Versification  is  comprised  under  the  following 
heads : — 

1.  Poetic  Accent  and  Feet. 

2.  Poetic  Pauses  and  Lines. 

3.  Rhymes  and  Stanzas. 

4.  Poetic  Licenses. 

1.  POETIC  ACCENT  AND  FEET. 

695.  Poetic  Accent  is  the  accent  which  divides  lines 
of  poetry  into  small  parts,  called  poetic  feet. 


326  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Poetic  accent  passes  through  lines  in  four  difTcrcnt  ways,  or  rests 
on  syllables  as  shown  by  the  following  numbers  :  — 
Iambic.  2  4  6  8  10  12 

Trochaic.         13  5  7  9  11 

Auapestic.       3  6  9  12  15  18 

Dactylic.          1  4  7  10  13  16 

Iambic;        "  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 
Trochaic:     "■  Round  us  roars  the  tempest  louder." 
Anapestic:  "At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still." 
Dactylic :      "  Bachelor's  hall,  —  what  a  queer-looking  place  it  is !  " 

696.  A  Poetic  Foot  is  a  part  of  a  line  that  consists 
generally  of  two  or  three  syllables,  one  of  which  is  ac- 
cented. 

697.  There  are  four  principal  feet :  — 

1.  The  Iambus;  a  foot  of  two  .syllables^  accented  on 
the  second ;  as,  enroll. 

2.  The  Trochee ;  a  foot  of  two  syllables,  accented  on 
the  first ;  as,  gdlden. 

3.  The  Anapest;  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  accented 
on  the  logt ;  as,  entertdin. 

4.  The  Dactyl;  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  accented  on 
the  first ;  as,  durable, 

698.  There  are  three  secondary  feet :  — 

1.  The  Spondee,  a  foot  of  two  long  or  accented  syl- 
lables. 

2.  The  Pjnrhic,  a  foot  of  two  short  or  unaccented 
syllables. 

3.  The  Ceesu'ra,  a  long  or  accented  syllable  used  as 
one  foot. 

Ex.  —  "  Near  the  lake  -where  drooped  the  willow 
Lung  time  ago."     Spondee. 

"  Of  the  I  low  sjiraset  clouds,  and  the  |  blue  s/c^."     Pyrrhic  and  Spondee. 

Snmotimcs  the  accent,  in  iambic  verse,  to  avoid  resting  on  a  short  sylliihle,  passes  to 
the  first  syllable  (if  Ion;:;)  of  the  next  foot,  malcinfj  this  foot  a  spondee,  and  the  piiccding 
one  a  pyrrhic.  Spondees  and  pyrrhics  are  not  always  produceU  ia  this  way  5  but  tliey 
are  geoerally  best  when  made  on  thia  compensation  principle. 


VERSIFICATION.  327 

"Thou  wdst  that  all  to  md,  Zdye-,  (Cassura.) 

For  which  my  soul  did  pine."  —  Poe. 
"  G6UI !  gold  I  gOUl !  gold !  4  feet  )  ^j^^  ^       ,  ^ 

Heavy  to  get  and  h'ght  to  hold."  —  Hood.      4  feet ) 

699.  The  secondary  feet  are  sometimes  allowed  to 
break  the  regular  measure,  in  order  to  avoid  a  tedious 
sameness  in  the  rhythm,  or  to  secure  onomatopoiia. 

700i  The  iambus  and  the  anapest  are  kindred  feet ;  and 
hence  they  are  sometimes  used  promiscuously. 

Ex.  —  "I  come !  I  come !  ye  have  called  mo  long ; 

I  come  o'er  the  mountains  with  light  and  song."  —  Ilemans. 

A  pleasant  rliythm  is  sometimes  produced  by  throwiajj  aa  anapest,  or  even  two,  into 
each  iambic  line. 

701.  The  trochee  and  the  dactyl  are  kindred  feet,  and 
hence  they  are  sometimes  used  promiscuously. 
Ex.  —  Bounding  away  over  hill  and  vdllcy. 

702*  Any  word  or  syllable  can  be  brought  under  the 

poetic  accent,  when  there  is  no  prevention  from  quantity 

or  word-accent. 

Quantity.  —  The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  its  relative  quantity  of  sound, 
or  it  is  the  relative  time  occupied  in  uttering  tlic  syllable.  In  regard  to 
quantity,  some  syllables  arc  hnj,  some  arc  short,  and  some  are  variable. 
Ancient  verse  was  made  chiefly  a<;cording  to  quamiry ;  but  modern  verse 
is  made  chiefly  according  to  accent. 

703.  It  is  sometimes  inelegant  or  improper  to  make  the 
poetic  accent  rest  on  a  short  syllable,  especially  when 
this  syllable  stands  next  to  a  long  or  accented  one. 

And  It  is  also  inelegant  to  make  the  poetic  accent  conflict  with  the  emphasis  of  ordinary 
dist'ourse. 

AVe  can  not  read,  "  As  a  friend  thank  hira,  And  with  joy  see  him." 
But  we  may  read,  "  Sed  him  with  joy,  and  thank  him  as  a  friend." 

7M*  A  word  of  two  or  more  syllables  can  bo  admitted 
into  the  verse  only  when  the  poetic  accent  takes  the 
place  of  the  primary  or  secondary  accent  of  the  word. 


328  ENGLISH   GRAmiAR. 

2.    POETIC  LINES  AND  PAUSES* 

705.  Feet  are  formed  into  lines  of  various  length  ;  and 
the  lines  arc  then  called  iambic^  trochaic^  anapestic,  or  dac- 
ti/Uc,  according  to  the  kind  of  foot  which  prevails  in  them. 

Lines  arc  also  named  according  to  the  number  of  feet  composing  them. 
Monom'eter,  a  line  of  one  foot        Peutam'eter,  a  line  of  five  feet. 
Dim'cter,  a  line  of  two  feet.  Uexam'eter,  a  line  of  six  feet. 

Trim'eter,  a  line  of  three  feet.  Heptam'eter,  a  line  of  seven  feet 

Tetram'eter,  a  line  of  four  feet,        Gctom'eter,  a  line  of  eight  feet. 

Iambic  Lines. 

J,  iambus  •,  f,  trochee  j  c,  anapsst }  d,  dactyl  j  c,  caesura  ]  -f ,  syllable  over. 

1i.  Refrain. 

2i.  The  pibrocli  rang. 

3t.  Beyond  the  ocean  blue. 

4j.  The  freighted  clouds  at  anchor  lie. 

5/.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 

6t.  When  thou  art  nigh,  it  seems  a  new  creation  roifnd. 

7{.  The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  vear. 

An  iambic  line  of  seven  feet  is  sometimes  broken,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot.  Into  two 
lines.  ^  ' 

706.  Sometimes  a  line  has  a  regular  number  of  feet, 
and  a  part  of  another  foot  at  the  end.  Such  lines  are 
called  hi/per' meters. 

Iambic  Ilypermeters. 

li+.    The  losses. 

2l+.  To  halls  of  splencfor. 

3/-H.  From  Greenland's  icy  mo)jir\tains. 

4/+.  Her  heart  is  like  a  faded  flower. 

5i-f-.  The  dee'r,  half-see'n,  are  to  the  covert  winding. 

6i-h.  I  think  I  will  not  go  with  yoii  to  he'ar  the  toasts  and  spe^che?. 

Trochaic  Lines, 

\t.  Turning. 

2t.  Darkly  waving. 

3t.  Early  birds  are  sfnging. 

4t.  Ne'vcr  wedding,  dver  wooing. 

*  Strict  adherence  to  tnith  probably  requires  that  vre  should  consider  the  poetic  pauses 
—  the  filial  and  the  cjEsural  —  as  producing  poetic  lines  and  cajsural  divisions  ;  but  to 
mike  the  BuV)ject  easier  to  the  learner,  we  shall  treat  of  lines  first,  and  then  regard  them 
simply  as  having  these  pauses. 


VERSIFICATION.  829 

5t.    Se€  the  distant  forest  dark  and  waving. 
6^    IJp  the  de'wy  mountain,  He'alth  is  bounding  h'ghtly. 
7t.     Then  in  thee  let  those  rejoice  who  seek  tliee  sclf-dcnylng. 
8f.    Beams  of  noon,  like  burning  lances,  through  the  tred-tops  flash  and 
gh'sten. 

Trochaic  Hjrpermeters. 

lt+.  Over  wdods. 

2t+.  Days  of  sorrow  came. 

3/4-.  Restless  mortals  toil  for  naught. 

At  -I-  Then,  methought,  I  heard  a  hollow  so^nd. 

5/-I-.  l^aiins  and  dryads  nightly  watch  the  starry  sky. 

6i+.  Softly  blow  the  e'vening  breezes,  softly  fall  the  de'ws  of  night. 

The  long  or  accented  syllable  which  sometimes  ends  a  trochaic  or 
dactylic  line,  is  so  nearly  equivalent  to  a  foot,  that  it  should  rather 
be  considered  a  caesura  than  a  mere  hypcrmeter  syllable. 

Anapestic  Iiines. 

lo.  Far  away. 

2a.  Far  away  in  the  South. 

3a.  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

4a.  Far  away  in  the  South  is  a  beautiful  isle. 

Anapestic  Hypermeters* 

la-H,    Strains  entranc/n^. 

2a  4-.    He  is  gone  on  the  moiin/am. 

3a4-.    On  the  knolls  the  red  clover  is  growing. 

4a+.    Through  the  courts  at  deep  midnight  the  torches  are  gleamin^jf. 

Dactylic  Lines. 

2rf.     Ljtnd  of  the  Pilgrim's  pride. 
2dt.     Come  to  the  mountain  of  Zion. 
3dc.    Shroudless  and  tombless  they  sunk  to  their  rest. 
3dt.     Pause  not  to  dream  of  the  future  before  us. 

7dc.    Kimrod  the  hunter  was  mighty  in  hunting,  and  famed  as  the  riilcr  of 
cities  of  yore. 

Composite  Verse.  —  Sometimes  different  kinds  of  feet,  or  different 
kinds  of  lines,  are  combined  in  the  same  poem.  Such  verse  is  called  cow- 
posite ;  and  it  is  most  frequently  found  in  odes  and  songs. 

See  Kerrs  Comprebeosire  Grammar,  pp.  329,  330, 321. 


330  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

POETIC  PAUSES. 

707.  To  improve  the  rhythm  or  verse,  there  are  two 
pauses ;  the  final  and  the  ccesu'ral. 

708.  The  Final  Pause  is  a  slight  pause  made  at  the 
end  of  each  line,  even  when  the  grammatical  sense  does 
not  require  it. 

Ex.  —  Ye  who  have  anxiously  and  fondly  watched  | 
Beside  a  fading  friend,  unconscious  that  1 1 
The  cheek's  bright  crimson,  lovely  to  the  view, 
Like  nightshade,  with  unwholesome  beauty  bloomed. 

709.  The  Csesural  Pause  is  a  slight  pause  made 
within  the  line,  most  frequently  about  the  middle  of  it; 
and  it  belongs  chiefly  to  long  lines. 

Sometimes  a  line  has  two  or  more  csesural  pauses,  one  of  which  is 
commonly  greater  than  the  rest.  The  secondary  pause  may  be 
called  a  deml-casural  pause. 

Ex.  —  "Warms  |  in  the  sun,  |    |  refreshes  j  in  the  breeze, 

Glows  I  in  the  stars,  |   ]  and  blossoms  |  in  the  trees."  —  Pope* 
"  No  sooner  had  the  Almighty  ceased,  |  than  all 
Tlie  multitude  of  angels,  |  with  a  shout 
Loud  I  as  from  numbers  without  number,  |  sweet 
As  from  l)lest  voices  |  uttering  joy,"  etc.  —  Milton. 
This  versification  is  admirable.    Tlie  caesural  pause  after  loud,  and  tliat  before  sweet, 
and  tlie  final  pause  after  sweet,  make  us  halt  in  reading,  to  enjoy  the  exquisite  luxury  of 
the  sense.   Long  lines  can  sometimes  be  divided  at  the  caesural  pause  into  two  lines  each. 

3.    RHYMES  AND  STANZAS. 

710.  Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  the  end- 
ings of  poetic  lines. 

Also  verse  that  consists  of  rhyming  lines,  is  frequently  called  rhyme. 

Sometimes  the  first  half  of  a  line  rhymes  to  the  second,  and  some- 
times rhymes  occur  in  immediate  succession. 

711.  Rhymes  must  begin  with  different  letters,  and 
end  with  the  same  sound,  or  with  nearly  the  same  sound. 


VEBSIFICATION.  331 

/Ihymes  that  are  not  exact,  yet  authorized,  are  called  allowable 

-712.  Rhymes  may  rmi  back  into  lines  one,  two,  or 
three  syllables ;  and  hence  they  are  classified  into  single 
rhymes,  double  rhymes,  and  triple  rhymes. 

The  rhyming  part  of  each  line  must  always  be  accented,  or  begin  with  an  accented  syl- 
lable. 

713.  Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 
Most  of  our  blank  verse  consists  of  iambic  pentameters. 

714.  Heroic  Verse  is  verse  that  consists  of  iambic 
pentameters. 

This  verse  is  called  so  because  it  is  chiefly  used  in  epic  poetry,  or  in  poetry  that  relates 
the  exploits  of  h'.-roes.  It  allows  greater  license  of  versiticatiun  than  any  other  kind  of 
verse,  in  the  way  of  admitting  other  kinds  of  feet,  as  well  as  hypermeterd.  —  See  Milton 
and  Shakespeare. 

An  iambic  hexameter  is  usually  called  an  Alexandrine. 

715.  A  Couplet  consists  of  two  poetic  lines  that  usually 
rhyme  together.     A  triplet^  of  three. 

718.  A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  three  or  more 
poetic  lines  that  usually  make  a  distinct  chime  of  rhymes, 
and  a  regular  division  of  the  poem. 

A  stanza  generally  consists  of  four,  six,  eight,  or  nine  lines. 

The  most  common  stanzas  are  the  common-metre,  the  long-metrcj 
the  short-metre,  the  elegiac,  and  the  Spenserian. 

Common-Metre  Stanza. 

4«.  "When  all  thy  mercies,  <J  my  Grod, 

Si.  My  rising  soul  surve'ys, 

4i.  Transported  Avith  the  view,  I  'm  lost 

Si.  In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

Short-Metre  Stanza* 

Si.  The  day  is  past  and  gone ; 
Si.  The  evening  shades  appear; 

4i.  0  may  wc  all  remcmhcr  well 
Si,  The  night  of  death  draws  near. 


332  -      ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Long-Metre  Stanza. 

4t.  So  blue  yon  winding  river  flows, 

4i.  It  serins  an  outlet  fioni  the  sky, 

4^.  Where,  waiting  till  the  we'st-wind  bldvrs, 

4i.  Tiic  freighted  clouds  at  anchor  Ke. 

Elegiac  Stanza* 

6i.  Here  re'sts  his  he'ad,  upon  the  Mp  of  lilarth, 

5i.  A  yoiith  to  Fortune  and  to  Fame  unknown ; 

bi.  Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 

5i.  And  Me'lauohdly  marked  him  ftir  her  own. 

Scanning. 

717.  Scanning  Is  the  dividing  of  verse  into  its  feet. 

Each  line  is  usually  scanned  by  itself;  but  it  seems  best  to  scan  continu- 
ously from  one  line  into  another  when  we  can  thus  avoid  irregularities. 
Ex.  —  'T  is  the  last  rose  of  summer, 

Left  blooming  alone  ;  4  feet. 

All  her  lovely  companiona 

Are  faded  and  gone.  4  feet. 

Sometimes  more  than  one  mode  of  scanning  can  be  applied  to  the  same 
poem  ;  but  that  mode  should  always  be  preferred  which  is  most  simple 
and  musical. 

For  the  vtirious  specimens  of  stanzas,  and  the  modes  of  scanning  them,  see  Kerl's  Com- 
prehensive Grammar. 

POETIC  LICENSES.  ' 

718.  A  Poetic  License  is  an  allowed  deviation  from 
the  correctness  of  ordinary  prose,  or  from  the  regular  laws 
of  versification,  in  order  that  the  poet  may  be  enabled  to 
reach  the  requirements  of  verse. 

Poetic  licenses  are  allowed,  — 

1.  In  Spelling*  Poets  frequently  shorten  words  by  the  elision  of  some 
letter  or  syllable.  —  See  p.  318. 

3«  In  Pronunciation.  Poets  sometimes  change  the  accent  of  a  word  ; 
and  sometimes  they  adopt  some  old  pronunciation,  in  order  to  make  a 
iliynje.  —  See  pp.  58,  59. 

3.  !u  the  Choice  of  Words.  Poets  have  gradually  gathered  and 
manufactured  for  themselves  a  little  extra  vocabulary  of  words.    Thc*e 


VEKSIFICATION.  333 

consist  of  antiquated  words,  foreign  words,  and  common  words  shortened 
or  lengthened.  The  following  are  specimens  :  Ken,  wend,  ween,  trow,  rife, 
yore,  lone,  guerdon,  xoeMn,  whilom,  albeit,  eijne,  brand  (sword),  sijlvan,  steed, 
swain,  morn,  eve,  founts  plaint,  ope,  jueed,  fane,  yon,  darksome,  stilly,  vasty, 
evanish,  bedimmed,  bewept. 

4.  In  the  Meaning^s  of  Words.    Poets  sometimes  vary  the  meanings 
of  words,  or  employ  a  less  appropriate  word. 

Ex.  —  *'  Chill  Penury  repressed  their  noble  rage^  —  Gray.    (For  zeal) 

A  license  in  regard  to  the  meaning  or  pronunciation  of  a  word  is  always  a  blemish, 
rather  than  a  beauty. 

5.  In  Idioms.    Poets  sometimes  use  uncommon  native  idioms,  and 
frequently  borrow  idioms  from  foreign  languages. 

Ex.  —  "  Who  would  not  sing  for  Lycidas  ?    he  knew 

Himself  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme."  —  See  p.  223. 
C.  In  Syntax.    Violent  inversion.    Violent  ellipsis.    Violations  of  the 
minor  rules  or  principles  of  grammar.  In  general,  any  inversion  or  ellipsis 
is  allowable  that  will  preserve  the  sense. 

Omission  of  Article.    "  The  why  is  plain  as  ^  way  to  ^  parish  church." 
Omission  of  Pronoun.    "  It  Avas  a  tall  young  oysterman  ^  lived  by  the  river- 
side." —  IJolines. 
(Omission  of  It.)    "  Suffice  ^  ,  to-night,  these  orders  to  obey." 
Omission  of  Verb.    "  Sweet  a  the  pleasure,  rich  ,^  the  treasure."    {is) 
Omission  of  Principal  Verb.    "  Angels  could  ^  no  more."    {do) 
Object  before  its  Verb.    "  Ilim  well  I  knew.'' 
Subject  after  the  Verb.    "  Echo  the  mountains  round." 
Auxiliary  after  Principal  Verb.    "  Nestled  at  its  roots  is  beauty." 
Adjective  after  its  J^oun.     "  Violets  blue  and  daisies  white.'' 
Predicate  Adjective  before  its  Verb.    "  Purple  grows  the  primrose  pale." 
Pronoun  before  Antecedent.     "  Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath." 
Relative  Clause  severed  from  Antecedent.    "  From  things  too  low  iliat  lie.'^ 

(Inelegant.) 
Adverb  between  to  and  the  rest  of  the  Infinitive.    "  To  slowly  trace  the  forest's 

shady  scenes." 
Preposition  after  its  Object.    "  Birds  sang  the  leafy  dells  within." 
Adjuncts,  participial  phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  and  adjective  phrases,  are 

frequently  transposed. 
St//" added  to  a  Noun.    "  Bewept  till  Pity's  selfhQ  dead." 
Pleonastic  Pronoun  added  to  its  Antecedent.    "  My  banks  they  are  furnished 

with  bees." 
Simple  Pronoun  for  Compound.   "I  laid  me  [myself]  down  on  a  green  bank." 
AHjective  used  for  Adverb.     "  So  sweet  she  sung."     {sweetly) 
Adjective  for  Noun.     "  O'er  the  vast  abi-upt." 
Intransitive  Verb  made  Transitive.    "  To  meditate  the  bbie  profound.'^ 


834  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Past  Tense  for  Perfect  Participle.    "  The  idols  are  broke.''  —  Byron. 
First  or  Third  Person  Imperative  in  stead  of  Let.    "  Turn  we  to  survey,'   etc. 
Or  —  or,  nor  —  nor,  for  eilher  —  or,  neiiher  —  nor.     "  JVor  in  sheet  nor  iv 
shroud  we  wound  him." 

7.  In  Figures.  Poetic  style  abounds  in  fij^ures,  and  is  frequently  set 
all  aglow  by  the  creative  power  of  the  imagination  ;  as,  "  The  native  hue 
of  resolution  is  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale  cast  of  thought."  —  S/iak. 

8.  Ill  Versification.  Variations  in  the  position  of  the  poetic  accent, 
or  in  the  number  of  unaccented  syllables,  are  allowable  where  the  chief 
poetic'pauses  occur,  —  the  final  and  the  cajsural. 

"  Ye've  trailed  me  through  the  forest;  |  ye  've  trailed  me  o'er  the  stream; 

And  struggling  throtigh  the  dverglade  |  your  bristling  bayonets  gl6am." 

Observe  that  forest  makes  here  a  syllable  in  excess  ;  but  the  irregularity,  occurring  at 
the  CEBSural  pause,  is  litUe  noticed.  It  is  just  so  iu  music  :  variations  or  extra  flourishes 
can  frequently  be  made  where  pauses  occur.  A  distinguished  poet,  in  speaking  of  li- 
censes in  versification,  says,  "To  prevent  metrical  harmony  from  degenerating  into  mo- 
notony, occasional  roughness  must  be  interposed.  The  rivulet  is  made  musical  by 
obstructions  in  its  channelJ" 

Iambic  or  anapestic  lines  sometimes  end  with  one  or  two  extra  unac- 
cented syllables.  —  See  Rogers's  Ginevra. 

Iambic  lines  may  occasionally  begin  with  a  trochee,  a  dactyl,  or  a 
spondee  ;  or  admit  a  trochee,  a  spondee,  or  an  anapest  within,  especially 
where  the  ctesural  pauses  occur. 

Ex.  —  "  Bursts  the  \  iv'dd  cry  \  of  terror  and^ismay."  —  Campbell. 
*'  Liberal^  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand."  —  Beattie. 
"  WeCp,  loePp,  and  rend  your  hair  for  those  who  n^ver  shall  retiim." 
"  Of  goodliest  trees  \  loaden  with  fairest  fruit."  —  Milton. 
"  And  man^  a  youth  and  maii^  d  maid.'"  —  Id. 
"  With  Heaven's  cirtil  \  lery  fraught,  come  rattling  on."  —  Id. 
It  is  generally  better  to  contract  an  excess  of  short  syllables  by  syoaeresis,  or  by  hasty 
prouuucialion,  than  to  reject  any  of  them  by  elision. 

Anapestic  lines  may  occasionally  begin  with  an  iambus  or  a  spondee ; 
or  admit  a  spondee  or  an  iambus  within,  especially  where  the  cajsural 
pause  occurs. 

Ex.  —  "  The  pdp]ara  are  felled,  |  farewell  to  the  shade, 

And  the  whispering  sounds  of  the  cool  colonnade."  —  Cowper. 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  comprises,  —  1.  Articulation;  2.  Degree  of  Loudness; 
3.  Degree  of  Rapidity;    4.  Inflections;    5.  Tones;    6.  Emphasis; 
■  7.  Pauses. 

1.  Good  articulation  requires  the  words  to  be  uttered  with  their 
proper  sound,  fully  in  all  their  syllables,  and  distinctly  from  one  an- 


UTTERANCE.  335 

Other.  It  is  opposed  to  mumbling,  mouthing,  mincing,  muttering, 
slurring,  drawling,  clipping,  lisping,  hesitating,  stammering,  miscall- 
ing, and  recalling. 

"  Words  should  drop  from  the  lips  as  beautiful  coins  newly  issued  from  the 
mint,  —  deepl}'  and  accurately  impressed,  perfectly  finished,  neatly  struck  by 
the  proper  organs,  distinct,  sharp,  in  due  succession,  and  of  due  weiglit."  — 

Aiis/in. 

2.  and  3.  The  degree  of  loudness  or  rapidity  must  depend  on  the 
speaker,  the  hearer,  the  discourse,  the  place,  or  other  circumstances. 
Scarcely  any  thing  else  is  so  disagreeable  as  utterance  too  rapid, 
low,  and  jumbled  to  be  intelligible,  and  rather  suggesting  that  the 
speaker  is  ashamed  to  let  others  know  what  he  is  saying. 

4.  hijlections  refer  to  the  passage  of  the  voice  from  one  key  or 
pitch  to  another.  There  are  three :  the  rising  inflection,  which  im- 
plies elevation  of  the  voice ;  the  falling  inflection,  which  implies  a 
sinking  of  the  voice ;  and  the  circuinjiex,  which  combines  the  other 
two.  "Was  it  you,  or  he?"  "Madam,  ?/oa  have  my  father  much 
oflended." 

5.  Tones  are  voice  as  modulated  by  feeling.  The}'-  should  be 
adapted  to  the  general  discourse,  and  also  to  its  distinct  sentiments. 
Tones  aim  to  awaken,  by  sympathy,  the  intended  emotions  in  the 
hearer. 

*'  In  exordiums,  the  voice  should  be  low,  yet  clear;  in  narrations,  distinct; 
in  reasoning,  slow;  in  persuasions,  strong:  it  should  thunder  in  anger ^  soften 
in  sorrow,  tremble  in^ear,  and  melt  in  tore."  —  Hiley. 

G.  Emphasis  is  an  elevation  of  the  voice  on  some  words,  word,  or 
part  of  a  word,  by  which  the  meaning  is  brought  out  more  precisely 
or  forcibly.  Emphasis,  properly  used,  adds  greatly  to  the  vigor  of 
discourse. 

Emphasis  relates  to  words ;  and  accent,  to  syllables. 

7.  Pauses  are  of  three  kinds :  sentential  or  grammatical  pauses, 
which  show  the  grammatical  sense  ;  rhetorical  pauses,  which  are  used 
for  emphasis,  or  for  effect  on  the  hearer ;  and  harmonic  or  metrical 
pauses,  which  are  used  in  poetry. 

The  pauses  are  relative  rather  than  absolute.  The  semicolon  requires  a 
pause  double  that  of  the  comma;  the  colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon ;  and 
the  period,  double  that  of  the  colon,  and  sometimes  even  longer.  Most  of  tiie 
other  points  require  pauses  that  depend  chiefly  on  the  sense.  Grave  or  solemn 
discourse  requires  longer  pauses  than  that  which  is  lively  and  spirited. 


336  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

PUNCTUATION. 

719.  Punctnation  treats  of  the  points  or  marks  used 
in  writing  and  printing. 

Punctuation  shows  the  joints  or  interruptions  in  the  flow  of  sentences,  and  helps  to 
bring  out  the  meaning  to  better  advantage.  It  is  based  almost  wholly  on  grammatical 
sense,  and  is  seldom  influenced  by  delivery. 

The  principal  marks  of  this  kind  are  the  following  :  — 

•  The  Period  j  which  denotes  the  longest  pause  or  a  full  stop. 

*  The  Colon ;  which  denotes  the  next  shorter  pause. 

;    The  Semicolon;  which  denotes  the  next  shorter  pause. 
y    The  Comma ;  which  denotes  the  shortest  pause. 
!    The  Interrogation-Point ;  which  is  placed  after  every  direct  question. 
!    The  Exclamation-Point 3  which  denotes  great  surprise,  joy,  or  other 
emotion. 
Hence  it  is  generally  placed  after  interjections  or  unusually  earnest  addresses. 

—  The  Dash ;  which  denotes  emphasis  or  abruptness. 

(  )    The  Curves ;  which  enclose  some  explanation  or  remark  that  can  be 

omitted. 
[  ]    The  Brackets ;  which  enclose  some  correction  or  explanation  that  is 

generally  inserted  by  another  person. 
«  "  The  Quotation-Marks  5  which  enclose  words  taken  from  another 

person. 
* '    "  Single  Quotation-Marks  enclose  'a  quotation  within  a  quotation.' " 
"When  a  piece  is  quoted  in  paragraphs,  quotation-marks  are  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
each  paragraph,  and  only  at  the  end  of  the  last  paragraph. 

'  The  Apostrophe ;  which  denotes  possession,  or  the  omission  of  some 
letter  or  letters.    Page  52. 

>■  The  Hyphen ;  which  joins  the  parts  of  most  compound  words,  and  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  line  when  a  part  of  a  word  is  carried  to 
the  next  line. 

'    The  Acute  Accent;  which  marks  stress  of  voice, 

^  The  Grave  Accent ;  which  shows  a  sinking  of  the  voice,  or  brings  out 
a  syllable. 

^  or  ^^  The  Circumflex  Accent;  which  is  a  union  of  the  other  two  ac- 
cents. It  sometimes  denotes  an  unusual  or  long  sound  given 
to  a  vowel,  as  in  tete-a-tete. 

-  The  Macron  5  which  marks  a  long  sound,  as  in  Five. 

^   The  Breve ;  which  marks  a  short  sound,  as  in  hve.  [Menelails. 

••   The  Dicer'esis ;  which  separates  two  vowels  into  two  syllables,  as  in 
5    The  Cedil'Ia ;  which  is  a  French  mark  joined  to  the  lower  part  of  c, 
to  give  this  letter  the  sound  of  s,  as  in  fagade^ 


PUNCTUATION.  S37 

fi  The  Til'de ;  which  is  a  Spanish  mark,  placed  over  n,  to  annex  to  it 
the  sound  of^;  as  in  canon,  a  ravine. 

^   The  Caret ;  which  is  used  in  writing,  to  show  where  words  or  letters 
>  are  to  be  inserted. 

)   The  Brace ;  which  serves  to  connect  parts. 

§  The  Section ;  which  is  sometimes  used  to  mark  the  small  divisions  of 
a  book. 

^  The  Paragraph ;  which  shows  where  a  new  subject  begins,  or  denotes 
a  paragraph. 

*,  t,  I  The  Star,  Dag^r,  and  Double  Dagger ;  which  are  used  as 
marks  of  reference.  Letters  or  figures  are  sometimes  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 

*  *  *^ ^  or .... ,    Stars,  Double  Dash,  or  Periods  5  which  denote 

omission  or  suppression. 

**  or  ,,  The  Ditto;  a  mark  used  in  stead  of  repeating  the  word  or  ex- 
pression above  it. 

H^    The  Hand ;  which  directs  special  attention  to  something. 

*^*  The  Asterism,  or  Three  Stars ;  a  mark  sometimes  placed  before  a 
note  that  has  a  general  reference. 

Leaders ;  which  are  periods  that  lead  the  eye  from  one  part  to 

another  over  a  blank  space,  as  in  indexes. 

___^^__    The  Underscore ;  which  is  a  line  drawn  under  words  in  writ- 
ing, that  are  to  be  printed  in  Italics  or  capitals. 
Also  various  marks  are  used  to  show  the  sounds  of  letters  as  in  Webster's  or  Worcester'B 

Dictiouary. 

PERIOD. 

720.  The  Period  is  put  at  the  end  of  every  word, 
phrase,  or  sentence,  complete  by  itself,  and  not  interroga- 
tive or  exclamatory ;  also  after  abbreviations. 

Ex.  —  John  W.  Ringgold,  Esq.,  addressed  the  assembly. 
The  abbreviating  period  supersedes  no  point  except  itself.  -^ 

exceptions. — Such  abbreviations  as  Tom,  Ben,  and  percent  do  not  take  the 
abbreviating  ptTiod,  for  they  have  themselves  become  words  ;  and  such  expressions  as 
l5<,  2i,  2i///,  itii,  etc.,  do  not  take  the  abbreviating  period,  for  they  are  not  so  much  ab- 
breviations as  they  are  cardinal  numerals  made  ordinal. 

Otlier  Uses.  — To  pcparate  decimals  from  whole  numbers  ;  as,  $  5.055  +.  After 
enumerating  fmures  or  letters  ^  as,  "  I  have  two  good  reasons  :  1.  I  can  not  give  my  at- 
tention to  the  business  ;  2. 1  have  no  money  to  invest  in  it." 

COLON. 

721.  The  Cclon  is  used, — 

1.  As  an  intermediate  point  between  the  semicolon  and 

the  period. 

15 


838  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex.  —  Powers  depart, 

Possessions  vanisb,  and  opinions  change  ; 
And  passions  hold  a  fluctuating  seat : 
But,  by  the  storms  of  circumstance  unshaken, 
And  subject  neither  to  eclipse  nor  wane, 
Duty  exists. 

2.  After  words  that  promise  a  series  or  statement,  oif 
something  important. 

That  is,  after  a  statement  that  ends  with  as  follows,  the  following,  thus,  these, 
or  other  words  suggestive  of  the  same  meaning;  also  generally  after  a  formal 
address  that  begins  a  discourse  or  letter. 

3.  Before  an  important  remark  added  to  a  sentence, 
especially  when  it  sums  up  the  sentence,  or  presents  the 
meaning  in  another  form. 

Ex.  —  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth,  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour  : 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 
The  colon,  in  this  sense,  is  frequently  used  in  stead  of  a  semicolon  and  conjiinction. 

SEMICOLON. 

722,  The  Semicolon  is  used,  — 

1.  To  separate  parts  that  hav&  the  comma,  or  parts 
that  require  a  point  greater  than  the  comma  and  less 
th^n  the  colon. 

Ex.  —  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 

Obs.  —  Hence  the  semicolon  is  frequently  placed  before  and,  but,  for,  though, 
yet,  nor,  nay,  hence,  therefore,  or  a  similar  connective,  when  this  imites  two 
clauses  that  are  rather  long,  and  make  but  one  sentence;  and  it  is  also  fre- 
quently placed  before  an  appositive  phrase  that  is  subdivided  by  the  comma. 

2.  To  separate  the  parts  of  a  loose  series. 

Ex.  —  Every  thing  has  its  time  to  flourish;  every  thing  grow> 
old ;  every  thing  passes  away. 

Such  a  series  may  consist  of  clauses,  subjects,  predicates,  or  modifiers. 


PUNCTUATION.  839 

COMMA. 
Serial    723.  The  Comma  is  used,  — 
^  ^*     1.  To   separate    the  terms   of   a   closely  related 
series,  or  two  such  terms  when  the  connective  is  omitted. 
Ex.  —  Hedges,  groves,  orchards,  and  gardens,  were  in  bloom. 

It  Mas  a  dark,  desolate  region. 
Our  captain  then  went  to  the  camp,  called  upon  the  officer  In 
command,  and  informed  him  who  we  were,  whence  we  had  come, 
and  whither  we  intended  to  go. 

2.  To  separate  terms  that  are  contrasted  or  otherwise 
distinguished,  and  terms  of  which  a  part  in  one  might 
be  referred  improperly  to  the  other. 
Ex.  —  He  is  poor,  but  honest. 

Now  a  peal  of  gunpowder  was  heard,  and  another,  and  another. 

The  troops  landed,  and  killed  a  hundred  Indians. 

"The  troops  lauded  and  killed  a  hundred  Indians,"  has  a  different  meanin?. 

Obs.  —  When  a  term  relates  to  each  of  two  or  more  separated  terms,  it 
must  generally  be  set  off  to  show  its  common  dependence  on  them  all;  as, 
"  The  water  was  as  bright  and  pure,  and  seemed  as  precious,  as  liquid  dia- 
Kurnds."  "  The  classics  have  been  the  models,  I  might  almost  say  the  masters, 
cf  composition  and  thought  in  all  ages.'^ 

Parenthet-     3.  To  set  off  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  is 
"    ^^  **    parenthetic,  or  that  comes  between,  other  parts 
and  breaks  their  connection. 
Ex.  —  You  will  then,  however^  be  in  no  better  condition. 

Moral  culture,  especially  in  youth,  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
They  set  out  early,  and,  before  the  dawn  of  day,  reached  the  place. 
9        Columbus,  who  was  a  Genoese,  discovered  America. 

Modifying       4.  To  set  oif  a  modifying  word,  phrase,  or 
^ases     clause,  that  is  not  closely  connected  with  what 

and       it  modifies,  or  that  is  removed  from  it  by  in- 

Clanses. 

version. 

This  is  a  very  comprehensive  rule,  and  partially  includes  the  preceding  rule. 
Ex.  —  "In  a  central  region,  midway  on  the  continent,  though 
somewhat  nearer  the  Pacific  than  the  Atlantic  ocean,  at  an  elevation 


S40  ENGLISH   GRAMilAR. 

of  nearly  seven  thousand  five  hundred  feet,  lies  the  remarkable  Tal- 
ley  of  Mexico,  encircled  by  a  colossal  rampart  of  the  hardest  rocks, 
and  forming  a  circumference  of  about  sixty-seven  leagues,  with  a  sky 
of  the  deepest  blue,  a  serene  atmosphere,  and  a  magnificent  land- 
scape." —  Prescott.     (Lies  where  ?    What  kind  of  valley  ?) 

Obs.  —  Hence,  also,  an  appositive  word  or  phraso  that  is  parenthetic  rather 
than  restrictive,  or  that  produces  a  separate  impression  on  the  mind,  is  gen- 
erally set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "  The  greatest  Roman  orator,  Cicero^  was 
distinguished  for  his  patriotism."  "  Such  was  Tecumseh,  the  celebrated  In- 
dian  wanHor." 

Independ-  5.  To  set  off  words  or  phrases  used  indepen- 
ent  Parts,  ^^^^j^  ^^  absolutely. 

Ex.  —  This  book,  Mary^  is  yours.     O,  ye.<?,  sir,  I  do  know. 
Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost.  —  See  Note  V. 

Suhject  6.  To  separate  the  predicate  from  its  subject, 
Predicate,  when  the  subject  is  very  long,  has  a  clause,  or 
consists  of  punctuated  parts. . 

Ex.  —  That  one  bad  example  spoils  many  good  precepts,  is  true. 
lie  who  falls  in  love  with  himself,  will  have  few  rivals. 
Neither  time  nor  distance,  neither  weal  nor  woe,  can  separate  us. 

Obs*  1.  —  A  predicate  consisting  of  two  parts  that  are  rather  long,  or 
equivalent  to  two  clauses,  generally  needs  a  comma  between  them;  as,  "  The 
prairies  of  Iowa  are  covered  with  a  rich  coat  of  grass,  and  not  unfrequently 
spotted  with  hazel  thickets." 

Obs.  2.  —  A  clause  or  long  infinitive  phrase,  that  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
predicate-nominative,  is  generally  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "The  unani- 
mous decision  of  this  little  party  now  was,  that  a  desperate  effort  should  be 
made  to  reach  the  ship  again  before  the  approach  of  night." 

Clauses.        7.  To  separate  clauses  that  are  neither  very  , 
closely  nor  very  loosely  connected. 
Ex.  —  There  mountains  rise,  and  circling  oceans  flow. 

If  Homer  was  the  greater  genius,  Virgil  was  the  better  artist. 
\         We  next  went  to  London,  which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world. 

No  Point.  8.  Short  simple  sentences  or  clauses  seldom 
require  a  point  within  them  ;  and  phrases  or  clauses  that 
stand  in  close  connection  with  that  on  which  they  depend, 
seldom  require  a  point  before  them. 


PUNCTUATION.  341 

Ex. — "  And  the  deep-pealing  organ  rolled 

Contrition  from  its  lips  of  gold."  —  Funeral  of  Lincoln. 
"  Tell  me  when  it  was  that  you  saw  him  after  he  returned.** 

Other  Uses.  — The  comma  Is  generally  placed  between  a  word  and  its  repetition  j 
as,  "  Sweet,  sweet  home !  "  It  is  placed  after  a  surname  when  this  is  put  before  the 
given  name  ;  as,  "  Tyler,  George  W.  It  is  used  to  separate  numbers  into  periods  ;  as, 
^  Population  of  the  United  States,"  31,443,790.  And  it  is  sometimes  used  to  supply  the 
place  of  an  omitted  Terb  or  coryunction ;  as, "  Indolence  produces  poverty  5  and  poverty, 
misery." 

INTER  ROGATION -POINT. 

724.  The  Interrogation-Point  is  placed  after  e very- 
complete  direct  question,  whether  it  forms  a  complete 
sentence  or  only  a  part  of  a  sentence. 

Ex.  —  Shall  we  never  have  any  rest  I 

What  have  you  to  say,  Charles  !  for  I  am  waiting. 

"  Will  you  go  I "  said  he,  "  or  will  you  stay  I " 

Is  my  name  Talbot  ?  and  am  I  your  son  1  and  shall  I  fly  ? 

Which  are  the  interjections  of  joy  I  —  of  grief  1  —  of  wonder  I 

When  a  sentence  consists  of  interrogative  parts,  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  decide 
whether  only  the  comma  or  semicolon  should  be  used  within  the  sentence,  and  the  inter- 
rogation-point at  the  end,  or  whether  the  interrogation-point  should  be  used  after  each, 
interrogative  part.  The  following  direction  may  aflFord  some  assistance  in  doubtful  cases. 

Obs.  1.  —  When  each  of  the  interrogative  parts  requires  a  distinct  answer, 
or  when  the  inteiTogative  nature  of  the  parts  is  not  sufficiently  obvious  with-« 
out  the  point,  the  interrogation-point  is  placed  after  each  of  the  parts.  ( See 
above.)  But  when  only  one  answer  is  needed,  or  when  the  question  is  not 
complete  before  the  end  is  reached,  the  comma  or  semicolon  is  used  within 
the  sentence,  and  the  interrogation-point  at  the  end ;  as,  "  Will  you  go,  or 
stay?  "    "  Which  is  more,  —  six  inches  square  or  six  square  inches?  *' 

Obs.  2.  —  A  question  that  is  merely  mentioned,  and  not  asked,  is  called 
indirect,  and  does  not  admit  the  interrogation-point  after  it:  as,  "He  asked 
tne, '  Why  do  you  weep?  ' "     Direct.    "  He  asked  me  why  I  wepV    Indirect. 

Hence  the  following  sentence  from  Dr.  Johnson  is  punctuated  incorrectly  :  "  When 
Diog'enes  was  asked  what  wine  he  liked  best  ?  he  answered,  That  which  is  drunk  at  the 
expense  of  others,"  Corrected  :  "  When  Diogenes  was  asked  what  wine  he  liked  best, 
he  answered,"  etc. 

EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

725.  The  Exclamation-Point  is  placed  after  a  word, 
phrase,  clause,  or  sentence,  that  indicates  great  surprise, 
grief,  joy,  or  other  emotion  in  the  speaker. 

Ex.  —  O  home  !  magical,  all-powerful  home  !  how  strong  must 
have  been  thy  influence,  when  thy  faintest  memory  could  make  these 
bro«ized  heroes  of  a  thousand  battles  weep  like  children  ! 


842  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Obs.  1.  —  The  exclamation-point  is  frequently  placed  after  interjections;  rs, 

"  Fie !  such  a  man !  " 

Obs.  2. —  The  exclamation-point  is  placed  after  unusually  emotional  or 
earnest  addresses;  hs,  "  0  Absalom,  Absalom!  my  son,  my  son!  " 

Obs.  3.  —  The  exclamation-point  is  sometimes  repeated,  for  greater  effect; 
as,  '*  Selling  off  below  cost ! !  great  sacrifices ! ! !  " 

Obs.  4.  —  The  interrogation  or  exclamation-point  is  sometimes  used  sneer- 
ingly  to  express  the  disbelief  of  the  speaker;  as,  "The  measures  which  he 
introduced  to  Congress,  and  which  ought  to  have  been  carried  by  overwhelm- 
ing majorities  ( V),  proved  him  to  have  been  in  every  sense  a  great  states- 
man ( I )." 

A  sentence  that  is  interrogative  in  form  but  exclamatory  in  sense,  is  followed  by  the 
cxclamation-poiut ,  as,  '•  What  business  could  the  honest  man  have  in  my  room :  "  —  Shak. 

DASH. 
726.  The  Dash  is  used,  — 

1.  To  show  omission  caused  by  interruption. 

Ex.  —  "  Here  lies  the  great  —  "    False  marble  !  where  ? 

2.  To  show  emphasis  or  suppressed  feehng,  or  to  show 
an  unexpected  turn  in  thought  or  style. 

Ex.  —  The  pulse  fluttered  —  stopped  —  went  on  —  throbbed  — 
stopped  again  —  moved  —  stopped. 

This  world,  't  is  true,  wa5  made  for  Cajsar  —  but  for  Titus  too. 

3.  To  set  off  a  parenthesis,  especially  when  emphatic, 
or  when  there  are  other  points  within  it. 

Ex.  —  He  was  dressed  —  and,  indeed,  so  were  they  nearly  all  — 
in  coarse  homespun. 

If  the  separated  parts  require  a  point  between  them,  this  point  is  usually  placed  before 
each  dash. 

4.  Before  echoes,  or  where  that  is  or  namely  is  under- 
stood. 

Ex.  —  They  were  governed  by  the  worst  passions,  —  malice  and 
revenge. 

Other  ITsea..  —  The  dash  is  generally  used  after  side-heads,  and  also  before  author- 
ities when  in  the  same  line  with  the  end  of  the  paragraph.  It  is  sometimes  added  to  the 
common  points  to  lengthen  the  pause  or  supply  the  want  of  an  intermediate  point,  to 
show  emphasis,  or  to  mark  transition.  In  dialogue  that  is  not  paragraphed,  it  is  now. 
commonly  used  when  the  speakers'  names  are  omitted.  It  is  generally  userl  in  composite 
headings,  as  in  newspapers.  It  is  often  used  where  a  line  is  broken  off,  and  the  subject  is 
resumed  in  the  next  lin".  It  i3  sometimes  used  to  show  omission  of  letters  or  tignres.  And 
it  is  often  useil  at  the  left  of  newspaper  extracts,  to  show  that  they  are  such,  or  as  a  more 
modpst  request  to  notice  than  the  o*.  (The  teacher  should  axplain  what  is  meant.  — 
Bee  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar.) 


PUNCTUATION.  343 

CURVES. 

727.  The  Curves  are  used  to  enclose  some  incidental 
remark  or  explanation  that  breaks  the  regular  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence,  and  can  be  omitted  without  injuring 
the  grammatical  sense.  Wliat  is  enclosed,  is  properly 
called  a  parenthesis. 

Ex.  —  "  Orthoepy/,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek  ortlios  (correct) 
and  epo  (I  speak),  signifies  the  right  utterance  of  words."  —  Sargent. 
"  Know  then  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know)  : 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below."  —  Pope. 
Obs.  —  If  the  parts  separated  by  the  parenthesis  require  a  point  between 
them,  this  point  is  frequently  placed  before  each  curve;  sometimes  it  is  placed 
only  after  the  latter  curve,  especially  when  the  parenthesis  is  more  closely  re- 
lated to  the  first  part  than  to  the  second ;  and  it  is  placed  only  before  the  first 
curve  when  the  parenthesis  requires  a  different  point  at  its  end,  which  point 
is  then  placed  before  the  latter  curve.   The  parenthesis,  within,  is  punctuated 
as  if  it  stood  alone. 

Ex.  —  "I  gave  (and  who  would  not  have  given?)  my  last  dollar.'* 
"  The  Frenchman,  first  in  literary  fame, 
(Mention  him,  if  j'ou  please.    Voltaire?  —  The  same.) 
With  spirit,  genius,  eloquence,  supplied. 

Lived  long,  wrote  much,  laughed  heartily,  and  died."  —  Coicper. 
"  At  the  opening  of  a  new  year  it  is  pleasant  —  (tUn(j-a-Ung-a-ling,  rings  the 
front-door  bell;  and  Bridget  breaks  upon  our  privacy  with,  '  Plase,  Sir,  it's 
the  butcher's  boy  with  the  bill.') —  it  is  pleasant  —  {tling-a  ling:  'Plase, 
Sir,  it's  the  baker's  bill.')  —  it  is  pleasant,  we  say,  to  dwell  upon  the  delight- 
ful memories  of  the  past.  —  {tUng-a-Ung-a-ling-a-Ung :  'Plase,  Sir,  it's  the 
milliner's  girl  left  mistress's  bill ! ')  —  and  —  and  —  What?  "  Harper's  Weekly. 

BRACKETS. 

728.  The  Brackets  are  properly  used  to  enclose  what 

one  person  puts  into  the  writings  of  another. 

Explanation :  "  Yours  [the  British]  is  a  nation  of  great  resources,"  etc. 
Correction :  "  Do  you  know  if  [whether]  he  is  at  home  1 " 
Omission:  "Abbotsford,  May  12th,  [1820]." 

729.  The  writer  himself  may  sometinies  use  the  brack- 
ets to  enclose  a  detached  explanation  or  remark,  or  some 
digression  or  apparent  interpolation. 


844  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

^» 
Ex.  — "Dismission  (-mish'-un),  n.    [Lat.  dismissio.] "  —  N.  Webster 
"  I  never  liked  him,  never,  in  my  days  ! " 
[*'  O,  yes  !  you  did,"  said  Ellen  with  a  sob.] 
"  There  always  was  a  something  in  his  ways  "  — 
["  So  sweet  —  so  kind,"  said  Ellen  with  a  throb.]  —  HoocL 

HYPHEN. 

730.  The  Hsrphen  is  used,  — 

1.  At  the  close  of  a  syllable  that  ends  a  line,  when  the 
remaining  syllable  or  syllables  of  the  word  must  be  car- 
ried to  the  next  line. 

2.  To  join  the  parts  of  most  compound  words. 

Ex.  —  "  There  is  pretty,  ten-year-old,  rosy-cheeked,  golden-haired 
Idary."  —  Wilson» 

Compound  Words. 

731.  A  phrase  is  generally  made  a  compound  word 
when  it  expresses  a  complex  idea  rather  than  two  or 
more  distinct  ideas,  when  it  is  used  as  one  adjective, 
when  it  has  become  the  common  name  of  an  object,  or 
when  it  differs  in  meaning  from  that  of  the  separated 
words. 

Ex.  —  The  iree-and-cloud-shadowed  river;  af  ten-dollar  note ;  Jium- 
ming-hird,  honeysuckle,  apple-orchard;  the  live-oaks  of  Texas. 

"  Time -tutored  age  and  love-exa/ted  youth  "  is  very  different  from  "  Time  tutored 
age,  and  love  exalted  youth''''  To-night  has  not  the  meaning  of  to  and  night.  A  pa' 
per-mill  is  not  made  of  paper,  ncr  is  a  tin-peddler  made  of  tin.  Eoston-Ncck  Meat- 
Market  is  a  more  definite  expression  than  *'  Boston  Neck  Meat  Market."  —  See  p.  66. 

Obs.  1.  —  Phrases  in  which  the  words  are  separately  significant,  are  usually- 
not  compounded ;  as,  "  brick  wall,"  "  gold  cupJ'^  Phrases  made  proper  names, 
"when  sufficiently  distinguished  by  having  each  principal  word  commenced 
with  a  capital  letter,  are  usually  not  compounded;  as,  ^^ Union  Square,"^ 
^^ Baffin's  Bayy  Idiomatic  phrases  are  usually  not  compounded;  as,  to  and 
fro,  by  and  by.  Cardinal  numerals  are  compounded  from  twenty  to  hundred, 
as  twenty-one ;  but  not  above,  as  "^ue  hundred  and  twenty  dollars." 

Can  not  and  in  stead  of  have  as  good  right  to  separation  as  may  not  and  in  lieu  of. 

Obs.  2.  —  A  part  common  to  two  or  more  consecutive  compounds,  should 
either  be  left  separate,  or  be  made  a  part  of  each. 

Ex. —  "Riding  and  dancing  schools;"  or,  "Riding-schools  and  dancing- 
schools;"  not,  "Riding  and  dancing-schools,"  nor,  "Riding-  and  danci'ii^ 
schools."    "  Six  and  seventeen  "  =  23;  "  sixteen  and  seventeen  "  ^  33. 


PUNCTUATION.  Mo 

Hyphened. 
7S2»  A  compound  word  is  generally  hyphened  when  it 
IS  first  formed,  when  it  has  been  but  little  used,  when  its 
parts  are  rather  long,  when  each  part  retains  its  own  ac- 
cent, when  some  letter  of  one  part  might  be  improperly 
referred  to  the  other  part,  or  when  the  parts  do  not 
coalesce  as  smoothly  as  syllables  of  one  word. 

Ex.  —  Zephyr-haunted,  festal-sounding,  knitting-needle,  ant-hill, 

red-hot. 

Unhyphened. 

733.    A  compound  word  is  generally  not   hyphened 

when  it  has  been  long  or  much  used,  and  when  its  parts 

are  short  or  coalesce  as  smoothly  as  syllables  of  one  word 

under  one  chief  accent. 

See  §  156.  Most  compound  words  that  are  used  as  adverbs,  prepositions, 
or  conjunctions,  are  not  hyphened;  and  prefixes  are  very  seldom  set  off  from 
the  remainder  of  the  word  by  a  hyphen.  A  hyphen  should  be  placed  after  a 
prefix,  when  two  vowels  come  together  that  might  be  mistaken  for  a  diph- 
thong; as,  re-elect. 

UNDERSCORE. 

731,  The  Underscore  is  a  line  drawn  under  words  in 
writing,  that  are  to  be  printed  in  Italics  or  capitals. 

One  line  is  drawn  under  a  written  word,  to  denote  slanting  or  Italic 
letters ;  two  lines  are  drawn  under,  to  denote  small  capitals  ;  and 
three  lines,  to  denote  CAPITALS. 


735.  Italic  letters,  and  sometimes  small  capitals,  are 
used  for  emphasis  or  distinction. 

Ex.  —  "  Here  /  reign  king,  and,  to  enrage  thee  more,  tht/  king  and 
lord."  —  Milton. 

1.  Italics  are  generally  used  to  distinguish  foreign 
words,  and  also  common  words  when  we  speak  of  theo» 
merely  as  being  words. 

Ex.  —  "  He  was  secretary  pro  tempore** 
"  Secretary  is  a  common  noun." 


846  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Italics  are  frequently  used  to  distinguish  the  names 
of  boats,  ships,  newspapers,  and  magazines. 
Ex.  —  "  The  Neptune  sailed  yesterday." 

"  This  article  appeared  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly." 
In  the  common  version  of  the  Bible,  Italics  show  what  words  were  supplied  by  the 
translators. 

D:^  For  exercises  in  punctuation,  let  the  reading-books  be  used.  The 
pupil  may  give  rules  for  the  points  which  he  finds;  and  he  may  also  be  re- 
quired to  capitalize  and  punctuate  paragraphs  transcribed  without  capitals 
or  points. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Poetry.  —  Poetry,  in  its  highest  perfection,  is  thought,  feeling,  im- 
agery, and  music,  expressed  in  language.  It  should  possess  the  accuracy, 
the  solid  sense,  and  the  other  good  qualities  of  good  prose  ;  and  all  devia- 
tions should  be  such  as  tend  to  make  it  poetry,  or  to  elevate  it  above  prose. 
Care  should  always  be  taken  to  select  that  mode  of  versification  which  ac- 
cords best  with  the  spirit  of  the  intended  poem ;  and  when  a  certain  stanza, 
or  a  certain  mode  of  versification,  has  been  adopted,  there  can  seldom  bo 
allowed,  throughout  the  same  poem,  any  departure  from  it.  Regularity  in 
versification  is  one  of  the  chief  beauties  of  poetry  ;  and  deviations  arc 
allowable  only  when  they  would  not  be  noticed,  or  when  they  serve  to 
produce  a  better  harmony  than  unvaried  regularity  could  afford. 

Punctuation.  —  The  punctuation  of  standard  English  literature,  as 
well  as  of  our  newspapers  and  other  journals,  is  one  of  the  most  chaotic 
subjects  that  ever  perplexed  investigation.  As  an  art,  punctuation  is  one 
of  the  nicest ;  and  long  experience  is  needed  to  secure  a  reliable  amount 
of  skill.  That  most  people  know  so  little  of  this  art,  is  because  they  are 
too  ignorant  of  grammar,  of  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  of  the  nice- 
ties of  syntax  and  thought ;  for  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  these 
things,  rules  of  grammar  are  unavailable,  or  can  not  strike  root  in  the 
mind.  So  far  as  there  can  be  a  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
meaning  of  what  is  written,  there  will  always  be  room  for  diversity  of 
punctuation ;  but  punctuation,  as  a  science,  can  never  rest  on  any  firm 
basis  except  the  principles  of  grammatical  "  Analysis." 

There  are  two  modes  of  punctuating,  called  dose  punctuation  and  free 
punctuation.  The  former  is  the  older  system,  and  it  consists  in  the  use  of 
many  points ;  the  latter  is  the  later  system,  and  it  consists  in  the  use  of 
but  few  points.  Close  Pdnctuatiox  :  "  To  carve  for  others,  is,  to  starve 
yourself."  —  G.  Broion.  "  So  that  the  term,  lamjuage,  now  signifies,  any 
series,"  etc.  —  Id.    In  free  punctuation,  the  foregoing  conaraas  would  bo 


OBSERVATIONS.  347 

omitted;  as,  "To  carve  for  others  is  to  starve  yourself."  "  So  that  the 
term  lantjiuKje  now  signifies  any  series,"  etc.  The  two  modes  of  punctuation 
differ  cliiefiy  in  regard  to  tlie  comma.  Free  punctuation  is  preferred  by  the 
best  printers ;  and  it  lias  become  so  far  established  that  much  of  the  punctu- 
ation now  taught  in  most  of  the  school  grammars  is  rather  obsolete. 

In  punctuation,  the  elements  of  sentences  are  clauses,  phrases,  and 
words ;  and  the  kinds  of  sense  which  must  be  regarded,  are  serial  sense,  ' 
modified  sense,  and  broken  sense.     The  points  mostly  used  are  the  comma 
and  the  semicolon. 

Simple  Sentences.  —  Most  printers  now  hold  the  opinion  that  no 
comma  should  be  inserted  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  and  that 
Mr.  Murray  took  the  wrong  end  of  the  principle  for  his  rule.  A  comma 
may  be  inserted  between  a  series  of  nominatives  and  their  predicate,  to 
show  the  common  dependence  of  the  predicate  on  all  the  nominatives ; 
though  many  printers  omit  the  comma  when  a  conjunction  stands  before 
the  last  nominative.  To  show  whether  a  dubious  word  or  phrase  belongs 
to  the  subject  or  the  predicate,  a  comma  must  be  inserted  ;  and  sometimes 
a  comma  is  admissible  after  a  long  subject.  When  the  subject  or  the 
predicate  consists  of  two  parts  that  suggest  the  idea  of  two  clauses,  the 
parts  are  separated  ;  as,  "  He,  as  well  as  I,  was  deceived."  "  Overhead 
the  branches  arch,  and  make  a  pleasant  bower."  An  object  or  a  predicate- 
nominative,  closely  depending  on  its  verb,  is  not  set  off.  Any  phrase  that 
makes  a  separate  impression  on  the  mind,  rather  than  combines  with  some 
other  part  to  make  a  whole  with  it,  must  be  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as, 
"  And  then  the  flowers,  so  modest,  so  lovely,  of  such  exquisite  hue,  en- 
ameled in  the  grass,  sparkling  amidst  it,  'a  starry  multitude,'  underneath 
such  awful  mountains  and  icy  precipices  —  how  beautiful !  "  Any  phrase 
that  is  equi^^alent  to  a  clause  which  would  require  a  point,  is  set  off  as  if  it 
were  the  clause.  "When  an  infinitive  phrase,  a  participial  phrase,  or  an 
adjective  phrase,  that  makes  a  part  of  the  predicate,  stands  before  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  To  be  rightly  estimated,  he  must  be 
judged  by  the  times  in  which  he  lived."  When  such  a  phrase  is  placed  be- 
tween the  nominative  and  the  verb,  and  is  parenthetic  rather  than  restric- 
tive, it  is  also  set  off.  When  it  holds  its  proper  syntactical  position,  it  is 
nbt  set  off  by  the  comma  if  it  stands  in  close  connection  with  the  Avord  on 
which  it  depends.  But  if  somewhat  removed  from  it,  it  is  set  off.  An 
emphatic  adjunct,  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 
A  forcibly  parenthetic  adjunct  must  also  be  set  off.  An  adjunct  that  fol- 
lows another,  but  depends  on  a  preceding  word,  must  generally  be  set  off 
by  the  comma.  An  adjunct  that  is  very  long,  or  that  has  the  force  of  a 
clause,  must  generally  be  set  off  by  the  comma.  Two  words  in  close  ap- 
position, especially  when  they  consist  of  a  pronoun  and  a  noun,  are  not 


848  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

separated  by  the  comma.  When  or  annexes  an  appositive  or  explanatory 
noun,  a  comma  is  inserted ;  as,  "  The  skull,  or  cranium."  But  when  or  joins 
equivalent  adjectives  or  adverbs,  they  are  not  separated ;  as,  "  In  a  careless 
or  indifferent  manner."  A  point  is  seldom  used  between  the  word  price 
and  the  number;  though  the  strict  sense  requires  the  comma.  A  term 
immediately  preceded  by  two  or  more  others  that  govern  or  qualify  it,  is 
generally  not  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "Lend,  lend  your  wings."  "It 
was  a  bright,  lovely  day."  But  in  other  cases,  and  when  there  is  something 
of  suspense  or  contrast,  the  part  is  set  off;  as,  "  The  liberties,  the  rights, 
of  our  citizens."  "  The  former  are  called  voluntary,  and  the  latter  involun- 
tary, muscles.^'  Parts  that  are  compared  or  slightly  contrasted,  and  de- 
pend closely  on  something  after  them,  are  seldom  separated ;  as,  "  It  is  a 
small  but  tlirijli/  tree."  But  an  intermediate  phrase  that  begins  with  if  not, 
is  always  set  off.  When  two  or  more  adjoining  modifiers  are  parenthetic, 
the  less  coalescent  one  is  set  off;  as,  "And  her  eyes,  on  all  my  motions,  with 
a  mute  observance  hung."  A  word  is  frequently  set  off  by  the  comma,  or 
not  set  off,  according  as  it  has  the  sense  of  a  conjunction  or  that  of  an  ad- 
verb. "  You  did  not  see  him,  then  ?  "  "  You  did  not  see  him  then  ?  " 
"  However,  I  will  not  shrink,  however  great  the  responsibility  may  be."  The 
pointing  sometimes  depends  on  how  smoothly  the  words  of  the  sentence 
flow  together;  as,  "■Perhaps  we  shall  never  see  him  again."  *' We  shall 
perhaps  never  see  him  again."  "  We  shall  never,  perhaps^  see  him  again." 
When  two  phrases  of  moderate  length  are  united  by  both — and,  either  — 
or,  or  neither — nor,  they  seldom  need  the  comma  between  them.  A  comma 
should  be  inserted  before  and,  or,  or  nor,  that  is  used  only  before  the  last 
term  of  a  series  ;  as,  "  A,  B,  and  Co."  "  John,  James  and  William  are 
studying,"  implies  that  I  am  telling  John  what  the  other  two  boys  are  doing. 
Insert  a  comma  before  and  and  the  sense  is  clear.  When  a  conjunction  is 
repeated  throughout  a  series  of  terms,  it  is  generally  better  to  insert  the 
comma ;  as,  "  The  health,  and  strength,  and  freshness,  and  sweet  sleep  of 
infancy,  are  yours."  —  R.  G.  Parker.  But  when  no  greater  point  than  the 
comma  can  be  used  at  the  end  of  the  series,  the  comma  within  may  be 
omitted  ;  as,  "  Dividing  and  gliding  and  sliding,  and  falling  and  brawhng 
and  sprawling,"  etc.  —  Southey.  Indeed,  the  comma  is  sometimes  ex- 
cluded within,  because  no  greater  point  can  be  admitted  at  the  end.  But 
sometimes  the  comma  must  be  used  within  a  part  that  is  itself  set  off  only 
by  the  comma;  as,  "And  therefore  will  I  take  the  Nevil's  part,  and, 
when  I  spy  advantage,  claim  the  crown."  —  Shakespeare.  But  when  the 
nominative  is  repeated,  the  semicolon  should  be  used.  Between  the  num- 
ber and  the  name  of  a  street,  the  comma  is  generally  needed  ;  as,  "  No.  T.*), 
Spruce  Street."  The  comma  is,  however,  frequently  omitted.  (See  Kerl's 
Comprehensive  Grammar,  p  371.)    Any  element  of  a  simple  sentence  can 


OBSERVATIONS.  849 

sometimes  run  into  so  long  and  loose  a  series  of  particulars  that  the  semi- 
colon is  allowable  between  them. 

Complex  Sentences.  —  When  the  dependent  clause  of  a  complex 
sentence  is  used  an  a  subject-nominative  or  a  predicate-nominative,  it  is  set 
off  by  the  comma.  When  it  is  used  as  a  noun  in  any  other  relation,  a 
comma  is  seldom  needed.  (See  pp.  246,  247.)  When  <Aa<  begins  a  clause 
which  depends  closely  on  it,  preceding  it,  or  on  a  governing  or  controlling 
verb,  or  on  so  or  such,  the  clause  does  not  require  the  comma;  as,  "It  is 
reported  that  he  is  coming."  "  I  know  that  he  is  honest."  "  It  was  so  heavy 
that  I  could  not  carry  it."  When  such  or  so  begins  the  previous  clause,  a 
comma  must  be  inserted  between  the  clauses.  When  an  objective  clause 
is  a  quotation,  it  must  generally  be  set  off  by  a  comma;  as,  "  Seneca  says, 
*  Life  is  a  voyage.'  "  When  a  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  it  is  not  set  off 
by  the  comma ;  but  when  it  is  simply  explanatory,  it  is  set  off.  "  The 
great  principles  of  government  which  are  easily  understood,  are  known 
everywhere,"  implies  that  only  some  of  the  great  principles  of  government 
are  easily  understood.  "  The  great  principles  of  government,  which  are 
easily  understood,  arc  known  everywhere,"  implies  that  all  great  principles 
of  government  are  easily  understood.  A  clause  that  begins  with  as,  he- 
cause,  how,  if,  than,  that,  tvhen,  where,  whether,  while,  why,  or  a  similar  word, 
and  depends  closely  on  a  preceding  clause,  seldom  needs  a  point  before  it. 
But  v/hen  such  a  clause  stands  before  the  principal  clause,  it  must  be  set 
off  by  the  comma;  as,  "I  will  go  when  he  comes";  "  When  he  comes,  I 
will  go."  Sometimes  even  a  semicolon  or  a  colon  can  be  used  between 
the  principal  and  the  subordinate  element  of  a  complex  sentence.  When 
the  dependent  element  of  a  complex  sentence  is  extended  into  a  series, 
sometimes  the  comma  is  used,  and  sometimes  the  semicolon.  The  latter 
point  implies  greater  deliberation. 

Compound  Sentences.  —  The  clauses  or  members  of  compound 
sentences  are  sometimes  separated  by  the  comma,  and  sometimes  by  the 
semicolon.  (See  pp.  338,  340.)  In  stead  of  the  semicolon,  the  peinod  can 
also  be  used,  when  there  is  a  design  to  give  still  greater  importance  to  the 
particulars.  When  the  verb  of  one  of  the  clauses  is  omitted,  a  comma 
must  generally  be  put  in  its  place ;  as,  "  Industry  produces  wealth ;  and 
wealth,  corruption." 

When  the  name  of  a  person,  and  a  complimentary  address,  are  both  used  at 
the  besinniniT  of  a  letter,  a  period  is  placed  after  the  name,  and  a  comma  or  a 
colon  after  the  address;  the  comma  in  the  familiar  style,  and  the  colon  in  the 
solemn  or  formal  style.  "When  the  letter  begins  in  the  Ime  below,  a  dash  may 
be  added  to  the  point  above. 


350 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 


10. 


13. 


Into  tyhat  fonr  great  classes  can  all 
the  errors  ia  tlie  Uoe  of  language 
be  divided  ^ 

What  is  the  first  General  Rule 

What  is  said,  in  the  special  rules, 
about  superfluous  pronouns?  — 
two  negatives  .'  —  double  com- 
parison ?  —  too  many  articles  ? 
superHiicus  prepositions?  —  pov- 
erty of  language ! 

What  is  the  second  General  Rule  ' 

Wliat  is  said,  in  the  special  rules, 
about  the  insertion  ol  articles '!  — 
improper  comparison  ?  —  parts 
emphatically  distinguished  ?  — 
serial  parts' — nominatives  im- 
properly omitted?  —  participial 
nouns? 

What  is  the  third  General  Uule  ? 

Kepuat  the  liules  of  bj  utax. ;  —  the 
Notes. 

What  is  said,  in  the  special  rules, 
of  iktrn  u.'Hjd  for  those  f  —  of  ad- 
Terbs  and  adjectives  ^  —  of  two 
objects  compared'.'  — of  X\\^  lead- 
ing term,  in  comparison?  —  of 
compared  adjectives  and  plural 
Douus,  improperly  expressed?  — 
of  words  tiiat  should  not  be  com- 
pared, or  made  phiril  ?  —  of  a 
and  ar\  ?  —  of  a  or  an  nnd  the?  — 
of  the  i<ubject  of  passive  verbs  ? — 
of  the  possessive  apostrophe?  — 
of  a  comjiound  word  or  a  complex 
term  expressed  in  the  possessive 
case  ?  —  of  a  pair  or  series  of  Jiouns 
expressed  in  the  possessive  case  ? 

—  of  harsh  or  inelegant  pos- 
Bessives  ?  —  of  ambiguous  pro- 
nouns?—  of  rel.itive  pronouns' 

—  of  mixing  different  pronouns, 
or  diiTerent  forms  of  the  verb  ?  — 
of  skall  and  will?  —  of  past  tense 
and  perf<!ct  participle? —  of  im- 
proper passive  forms  ?  —  of  the 
indicative  and  tie  subjunctive 
mood?  —  of  the  tenses  ?  —  of  the 
infinitives  ?  —  of  clumsy  partici- 
pial forms  ? 

What  is  the  fourth  General  Rule  ? 

\Vhat  is  said,  in  the  special  rules, 
of  the  position  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ?  —  of  the  position  of  ad- 
jectives, adverbs,  and  adjuncts  ? 

—  of  adverbs  that  modify  infini- 
tives?—  of  a  p;trt  of  a  sen^ence 
tliat  relates  to  each  of  two  or 
more  oiher  parts .' 

What  is  a  Figure?  ....  6S7 
Into  what  classes  are  figures  di- 
vided?         6fi8 

Mention  the  figures  of  orthography.  (H>^ 


What  i-i  aphairesis ?  —  syncope ?  — 
apocope  ?  —  prosthesis  ?  —  para- 
goge  '  —  tmesis  ? 
Mention  the  figures  of  syntax.        .  670 
What  is  ellipsis  '  —  aposiopesis  ?  — 
zeugma     —  pleonasm?  —  enal- 
lage  ?  —  inversion,  or  hyperbaton? 
What  is  an  archaism  ?  .        .      671 

What  is  mimicry'  ....  672 
Mention  the  figures  of  rhetoric.  673 
What  is  a  simile?  —  a  metaphor' 

—  an  allegory?  —  a  metonymy? 

—  a  synecdoche?  —  per.-iouifica- 
tion?  —  antithe.sis?  —  irony  .'  — 
paralipsis  ?  —  hyperbole  ?  —  cli- 
max ?  —  allusion  ?  —  euphemism  ? 
interrogation  ?  —  exclamation  ?  — 
apostrophe  ?  —  vision  ?  —  onoma- 
topa'ia  ? 

What  is  parody  ?   AVhat  is  a  pun? 
What  is  Versification  ?    .        .        . 
Wliat  is  verse  ?     . 
I'o  what  four  heads  is  Tersiflcation 

reduced? 

What  is  poetic  accent?        . 
What  is  a  poetic  foot  ?     .        .        . 
Mention  and  define  the  principal 

feot 697 

Mention  and  define  the  secondary 

feet 698 

What  is  said  of  poetic  lines?  .  705 
What  isan  hvpermet«r '  .  .703 
A\'hat  pauses  are  peculiar  to  verse  '  707 
Define  them.  .  .  .  708,  709 
What  is  rhyme?  .  .  .  .710 
Describe  rhymes.  .  .  711,  712 
What    is    blank    verse  ?  —  heroic 

verse  ?  —  a  couplet  ?  —  a  staniia.  ? 

—  scnnning ' 

What  is  a  poetic  license  ?         .        .718 

Mention  the  eight  principal  kinds. 

What  does  utterance  comprise? 

What  is  said  of  articulation'  — 
the  degree  of  loudness  or  rapid- 
ity ?  —  inflections  ?  —  toneal  — 
empha>is  ?  —  pauses  ? 

What  is  Punctuation  ?    .         .         .  ''19 

How  many  of  the  points  and  marks 
can  you  mention  ? 

Whai  is  said  of  the  period? — ^.fhe 
colon  ?  —  the  semicolon  ?  —  the 
interrogation-point  ?  —  the  excia- 
niiition-point  ?  —  the  dash ?  —  the 
curves  ?  —  the  brackets  ?  —  the 
hyphen?  —  the  underscore?  — 
Italics? 

AVhat  is  said  of  the  comma  in  re- 
gard to  series  of  terms  '.  —  paren- 
thetic terms  ?  —  loose  modifiers? 

—  independent  words  ?  —  sutyec* 
and  predi'-ate  ?  —  clauses  ?  — 
fiimp le  sentenced  ? 


692 
693 

694 

695 
693 


now  I  WOULD  TEACH  GIlAI^IMAR  ON  THE  BLACKBOARD, 
TO  A  CLASS  OP  BEGINNERS. 

[It  is  probably  best  to  introduce  the  study  of  Grammar  to  a  class 
of  beginners,  by  a  series  of  blackboard  exercises  ;  or  an  exposition  of 
this  kind,  as  natural  as  possible,  sliould  at  least  accompany  other 
exercises.] 

We  naturally  first  notice  objects;  they  make  impressions  onus; 
and  then  we  say  something  of  them.  The  words  denoting  objects 
are  such  as  man,  tree,  house,  sun,  rioer,  book,  brook,  mill,  meadow, 
horse.  Let  the  teacher  Tvrite  one  of  the  simplest  ajiid  most  suggestive 
nouns  on  the  blackboard. 

Man. 

Man  works. 

Man  makes  machines. 

At  first,  the  sentences  should  be  omitted,  and  simply  the  word  man 
should  be  presented ;  or  things  should  be  so  brought  upon  the  black- 
board, and  rubbed  away,  as  to  appear  successively.  "  One  thing  at  a 
time,"  and  "  From  one  learn  all,"  are  good  maxims  in  teaching. 

The  teacher  may  now  begin  with  tiie  word  man,  by  showing  the 
diflerence  between  the  spoken  and  the  written  word,  and  between  the 
word  as  a  sign  and  the  object  itself.  He  may  show  that  the  word  must 
be  a  Koiiii;  and  that  such  words  as  the,  a,  wise,  slowly,  and,  and  0  are 
not  like  it,  and  therefore  can  not  be  nouns.  We  learn  best  by  com- 
paring and  contrasting.  The  teacher  may  define  a  word,  and  then  a 
noun  ;  and  whenever  he  gives  a  definition,  the  class  may  in  concert 
repeat  it  several  times  after  him.  If  convenient,  they  may  also  first 
write  it  on  their  slates,  as  soon  as  he  gives  it,  and  then  repeat  it 
several  times.  Define  a  letter  in  the  same  way  ;  then  a  syllabic,  and 
then  annex  ful  or  ly  to  man,  so  as  to  show  that  there  are  derivative 
words.  Also  combine  the  word  man  With  some  other  word,  as  work, 
fire,  slaughter,  to  show  that  there  are  compound  words.  Let  every 
newly  discovered  thing  be  named  and  defined  as  soon  as  obtained ; 
and  dwell  upon  these  things  until  they  are  fixed  in  the  mind.  Indeed, 
the  entire  exercise  should  be  like  a  regular  and  well-planned  excur- 
sion for  discoveries  in  language  ;  and  as  soon  as  a  new  thing  appears, 
let  it  be  named,  defined,  and  illustrated  by  additional  examples.  It 
is  still  better,  where  it  can  be  done,  always  first  to  suppose  a  state  of 
things  that  shall  make  necessary  the  element  to  be  introduced. 

The  teacher  may  now  pass  down  through  the  various  classes  and 
properties  of  nouns,  by  bringing  up  collaterally,  for  comparison,  such 
other  nouns  as  will  show  the  various  accidents.  For  instance,  he  may 
mention  the  words  Brown,  Jones,  Smith,  Alison,  or  the  names  of  some 
well-known  citizens  ;  and  thus  shoAv  that  there  must  be  proper  and 
common  nouns.  Let  each  kind  be  defined,  and  further  illustrated,  as 
suggested  above.  He  may  now  write  under  the  word  7nan  the  word 
army,  and  then  show  that  this  word  can  be  applied  only  to  a  collection 
of  men  just  as  7nan  may  be  applied  to  an  individual.  Thus  the 
coltctive  noun  is  obtained.  Again,  he  may  add  the  word  manliness 
or  manhood,  and  show  how  this  differs  from  man  ;  thus  obtaining  the 
a^jstract  noun.  Now  write  below  the  word  7nant'he  word  woman,  and 
un  ler  this  the  word  person,  and  under  this  the  word  book.  From  these 
f^ar  words  teach  the  genders.    Next,  the  teacher  may  show  that 


352  APPENDIX. 

there  can  be  a  speaker,  some  one  spoken  to,  or  some  person  or  thing 
spoken  of ;  and  putting  I  for  man,  then  you  for  man,  he  may  thus  find 
the  persons.  The  teacher  may  now  put  the  word  men  under  man,  and 
thus  lead  liis  pupils  to  the  idea  of  number,  thence  to  the  nurnhers.  Of 
course,  additional  illustrations  should  be  given  to  establish  the  idea 
better.  Lastly,  the  teacher  should  write  beside  the  word  man  tlia 
word  m,an's,  and  beside  men  the  word  men's  ;  thus  leading'  the  pupils 
to  case,  or  to  the  fact  that  words  toll  something  only  when  used  with 
other  words,  or  in  groups.  There  is  also  a  good  opportunity  here  to 
teach  what  is  meant  by  a  Hulc  of  syntax  ;  and  if  the  pupils 
are  not  too  young,  the  relations  among  words  may  bo  taught 
by  introducing  the  Rules  of  syntax  gradually,  or  with  each 
new  element  that  requires  a  new  Rule.  The  teacher  may  again 
take  up  the  subject,  and  say  that  the  word  man,  by  itself,  tells 
nothing;  and  that  another  word,  at  least,  must  be  joined  to  it  if 
something  is  to  be  said.  He  may  suggest  the  word  works,  thinks, 
mourns,  suffers,  rules,  or  any  other.  The  curiosity  of  the  pupils  should 
now  be  excited  by  announcing  the  important  fact  that  a  ^'JEJiV- 
TENCE  has  been  obtained.  This  should  be  defined,  and  other 
short  sentences  should  be  given  to  fix  the  impression.  The  pupils 
may  also  be  required  to  make  sentences.  The  teacher  may  next  show 
that  he  can  be  substituted  for  man,  and  also  for  a  variety  of  mascu- 
line nouns,  as  George,  John,  Henry,  horse,  drake  ;  and  that  she  can 
be  substituted  for  feminine  nouns,  as  Mary,  Susan,  icoman,  girl,  cow, 
duck  ;  thus  leading  his  pupils  to  the  Jt*ronouns,  The  kinds  of  pro- 
nouns may  now  be  briefly  but  clearly  explained;  and  the  teacher 
should  then  show  that  pronouns  are  and  must  be  similar  to  nouns, — ^ 
a  fact  that  is  embodied  in  a  Bule.  Having  thus  reached  the  end,  the 
teacher  may  try  to  excite  the  wonder  of  the  pupils  as  to  how  much 
can  be  learned  from  a  single  word  ;  and  he  may  also  cheer  them  with 
the  fact  that  when  they  have  learned  one  word  they  know  the  nature 
of  many  others,  and  are  rapidly  getting  rich  in  knowledge. 

The  teacher  may  now  take  up  the  Verb,  and  show  how  it  differs 
from  the  noun.  A  word  that  tells  something  about  an  object,  must 
be  different  from  the  word  which  denotes  the  object.  It  may  be  also 
well  to  show,  by  analogy,  that,  as  there  are  different  kinds  of  flowers, 
trees,  animals,  etc.,  so  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  are  differ- 
ent kinds  of  words ;  and  as  almost  every  object  has  several  qualities 
— such  as  color,  size,  shape,  etc.,  so  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
almost  every  word  has  several  properties.  After  a  suitable  introduc- 
tion, go  on  with  the  verb,  and  let  the  pupils  be  conducted  through  it 
as  they  were  conducted  through  the  noun.  Since  the  moods  are  sim- 
ply the  different  ways  in  which  the  act  or  state  can  be  referred  to  ita 
subject,  they  should  be  carefully  presented,  and  then  branched  out 
into  the  tenses,  and  these  into  the  styles  or  forms,  and  these  into  the 
various  persons  and  numbers.  In  unfolding  the  verb,  it  is  particularly 
easy  and  expedient  to  show  always  in  advance  that  the  nature  of 
things  requires  the  peculiar  form  or  forms  that  are  to  be  presented. 
In  connection  with  moods,  the  teacher  should  also  show  the  difference 
between  a  predicate-verb  and  a  mere  participle  or  infinitive, — between 
a  predication  and  what  is  not  a  predication,  between  an  assertion  and 
a  mere  assumption,  or  between  a  sentence  and  a  phrase.  "  The  man 
good,"  tells  nothing  ;  but  "  The  man  is  good  "  is  a  clear  statement 
'•  A  Udy  singinc:,"    "  A  singing  lady,"  are  mera  nhrases :    "  The  lacH 


APPEJ^DIX.  353 

is  singing,"  "  Tlie  lady  sings,"  are  assertions  or  sentences.  Since  the 
verb  is  closely  dependent  on  its  subject,  and  varies  according  to  the 
person  and  number  of  the  subject,  it  will  be  easy  to  teach  here  what 
are  called  government  and  agreement  in  syntax.  The  attention  of  the 
pupils  may  also  be  now  directed  to  Jt*arsiugf  as  being  simply  an 
orderly  enumeration  of  the  instructive  things  that  can  be  learned 
about  words.  Lastly,  it  may  be  shown  that  all  the  elements  thus 
taught  are  really  useful,  or  conducive  to  a  great  end, — namely,  to  teach 
us  how  to  speak  and  write  correctly  ;  because  for  this  purpose  it  is 
necessary  that  we  should  be  familiar  with  the  different  forms  of  words, 
in  order  that  we  may  always  be  able  to  choose  the  right. 

Now  the  teacher  may  commence  with  the  Modifiers,  or  Adr- 
JunctSf  to  the  principal  parts. 

Trees  grow. 

The   tree  grows. 

Young  trees  grow  rapidly. 

Our  trees  do  not  grow. 

Our  two  young  trees  are  now  growing. 

Our  two  young  trees  are  now  growing  very  rapidly. 

Trees  bear  fruit. 

Young  trees  bear  the  best  fruit. 

Several  old  trees  yet  bear  very  excellent  fruit. 

Jones  is  a  blacksmith. 

Jones  the  blacksnoLit*h  is  strong. 

Jones  the  blacksmith  is  a  very  strong  man. 

Having  obtained  the  two  principal  elements,  add  to  them  succes- 
sively the  different  kinds  of  Articles^  Adjectives,  and  Adverbs, 

— single  words  ;  and  thus  enlarge  the  sentence  in  all  the  various 
ways  in  which  it  can  be  enlarged.  Show  the  difference  between 
principal  and  subordinate  parts,  by  writing  on  the  board  a  sentence 
of  this  kind :  "  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave."  Rub 
away  all  but  "  paths"  and  "  lead,"  and  these  two  words  still  make 
sense  ;  therefore  they  are  principal  parts  :  but  rub  away  "  paths  " 
and  "  lead,"  and  the  remaining  words  no  longer  make  sense,  or  they 
make  sense  only  when  attached  to  the  other  two  words,  and  are  there- 
fore subordinate.  Show  the  necessity  for  modifiers  or  adjuncts  ;  for 
without  them  the  thought  would  be  imperfectly  expressed,  or  the 
meaning  would  be  left  too  wide,  loose,  or  indefinite.  The  more 
modifiers  we  use,  the  more  we  narrow  the  scope  of  the  sentence  ;  but 
in  the  same  proportion  the  sentence  becomes  sharper  and  more  dis- 
tinct. Explain  the  peculiar  nature  of  articles,  adjectives,  and  adverbs, 
just  as  you  unfolded  the  nature  of  nouns  and  verbs.  After  having 
presented  adverbs  of  manner,  time,  place,  and  degree,  you  may  ask, 
with  reference  to  a  sentence  of  this  kind — "  Our  trees  do  not  grow," 
whether  not  denies  the  trees  or  the  growing.  To  what,  then,  does 
not  relate  ?  and  what  must  it  be,  though  it  does  not  express  manner, 
place,  time,  or  degree  ?  liules  of  syntax  may  also  be  thus  taught  as 
occasions  arise  for  them. 

Having  disposed  of  modifying  words,  introduce  Modifying 
Phrases,  but  only  the  most  common  and  important, — the  preposi- 
ilonaJ  phrase,  the  participial  phrase,  and  the  infinitive  phrase. 


354  APPEIsTDIX. 

The  trees  in  the  meadow  are  growing  rapidly. 

The  tree  fell  into  the  field. 

The  trees  planted  lad  year  are  dead. 

The  trees  to  he  planted  now,  have  not  yet  arrived. 

Trees  were  j)] anted  to  shade  the  house. 

Begin  by  Bhowing  that  "The  trees  in,"  "The  trees  in  the,'"  would  not  make 
eatisiactory  senbe ;  and  that  something  more  is  needed,  or  that  we  must  eay,  "  The 
trees  in  the  meadow,''''  to  get  a  complete  idea.  Such  expressions  as  in  the  meadow, 
on  the  hill,  by  the  brook,  behind  ttie  house,  beyond  the  ii%er,  are  called  prepodtionul 
phrases  ;  and  the  words  in,  on,  by,  behind,  and  beyond  are  called  rrepositiotts. 
Define,  explain,  and  illustrate  fully  the  most  common  words  of  this  kind.  Next 
dispose  of  2M7iicipial  phrases  and  infinitive  phrases  in  like  manner ;  and  show 
also  how  they  are  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns. 

Now  introduce  the  principal  Modifying  Clauses,— those  which  begin  with 
relative  pronouns,  conjunctive  adverbs,  and  subordinate  conjunctions. 

The  trees  which  have  many  leates  bear  but  little  fruit. 

Trees  grow  best  where  they  are  sheltered  from  winds. 

The  tree  grows  rapidly  because  the  soil  is  rich. 

I  see  that  you  have  cut  down  the  old  elm. 

How  an  acorn  becomes  an  oak,  is  a  mystery. 

Draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  added  element  is  itself  a  statement ;  and  eay 
that  such  an  element  is  called  a  clause.  Give  definitions,  explanations,  and  illus- 
trations. Show  the  nature  of  dependent  clauses  ;  or  that  thty  are,  like  the  phrases 
above,  but  adjectives,  adverbs,  or  nouns.  Speak  of  the  connecting  word ;  and 
show  that  the  rest  of  the  clause  is  nothing  but  a  simple  statement.  It  is  now  con- 
venient to  show  the  distinction  between  simple  sentences  and  ccmjiosite.  The 
teacher  may  also  add  here  that  the  adjective,  the  adverbial,  and  the  substantive 
idea  in  language,  are  expressed  by  ivords,  _2?/jras€'«,  or  clauses  ;  and  he  may 
present  such  illustrations  as  tlMKlowing:  "A  wise  man  will  act  cautiously ; '' 
"  A  man  of  wisdom  will  act  catfHSiisly ;  "  "A  man  who  gives  good  advice  does  not 
alwavs  follow  it  himself."  "  The  candidate  spoke  here ; "  "  The  candidate  spoke 
in  this  place  ; ''''  '' The  candidsite  Bpoke  where  the  people  ha.d  assimbled.'''' 

Now  introduce  Conjunctiotis  and  Compound  elements.  Let  the  different 
elements  of  the  sentence  be  successively  compounded,  and  lastly  show  that  state- 
ments themselves  may  be  compounded. 

Trees  and  bushes  grow  along  the  river. 

Many  trees  and  shrubs  bear  fruit  and  leaves. 

Young  and  thrifty  trees  adorn  the  Park. 

The  trees  wave  and  rustle  in  the  breeze. 

Constant  and  rapidly  rose  the  water  above  and  below  us. 

The  limbs  of  the  tree  extend  over  the  house  and  into  the  garden. 

Large  trees  stand  on  yonder  hill,  and  many  crows  are  cawing  there. 

Finally,  select  a  few  of  the  most  impressive  sentences  or  expressions  containing 

luterjections,  and  by  means  of  these  examples  teach  the  emotional  and  unsyn- 

tactical  nature  of  this  class  of  words. 

As  each  element  is  introduced  throughout  the  foregoing  blackboard  exercises,  it 
will  be  locUto  require  the  pupils  to  furnish  additional  specimens  from  their  oum 
stock  of  language.  To  give  them  something  to  do  relating  to  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration, is  at  least  one  of  the  best  ways  to  fix  their  attention. 

?^"  To  the  foregoing  outline  of  exercises,  the  inventive  teacher  can  easily  add 
many  other  useful  exercises.  The  kinds  of  certain  classes  of  objects  may  be  meii- 
tioned ;  the  parts  of  certain  objects ;  the  contents.  The  sam.e  adjective  or  verb 
may  be  suitaljly  joined  to  many  differej^  nouns  ;  or  the  same  noun  to  many  difier- 
ent'adjectives  or  verbs.  Adiectives  Km.  adverbs  may  be  contrasted,  also  noims 
and  pronouns.  All  things  liable  to  be  confounderi  maybe  contrasted  in  colurr\ns. 
(So  far  as  convenient,  the  exercises  should  be  arranged  in  columns ;  especially 
when  the  items  are  related.)  ni^hly  instructive  and  interesting  sentences  may  be 
written  on  the  blnckboard.  and  carefully  analyzed  and  parsed,  to  serve  as  general 
and  durable  moflels.  Pitliy  extracts  may  be  written  on  tlTe  blackboard  ;  and  pupils 
may  be  required  to  write  in  columns  the  parts  of  speech  in  them,  and  then  make 
new  sentences  from  these  words.  The  teacher  may  also  give  a  pithy  word  or 
phrase,  and  let  it  go  rapidly  round  the  claas,  each  pupil  making  a  different  een- 
tecce  In  which  it  is  properly  used. 


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Analysis  of  Civil  GoT'ernment. — Including  a  Critical  and  Tabular  Analysis  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  with  Annotations,  «&c.  ;  designed  for 
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tions of  learning.     In  cloth,  lamo.     340  pages. 

The  A  nalysi<;  0/  the  Constitution. — A  Chart  of  25  pages,  15  x  20  inches  each,  is 
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READING  AND  ELOCUTION. 

BY  ANNA  T.   RANDALL. 
A  new  and  popular  work,  designed  to  be  used  independently,  or  with  any 
Series  of  Readers. 

H  IJ  isr  T  '  s 

LITERATURE    OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

By  E^HUNT. 
A  new  work,  just  published,  based 'upon  an  original  and  practical  plan.    It 
comprises  representative  selections  from  the  best  authors,  also  list  of  contem- 
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WOODBURY'S  GERMAN   COURSE. 

Founded  on  similar  principles  with  Fasquelle's  system. 


IVoodbur/s   New    Method  with    the 

German. 
Woodbury s  Key  to  Above. 
Woodbury^ i  Shorter  Course  with   the 

German, 
Woodbury  s  Key  to  the  Shorter  Course. 
Woodbury's  Method  for  Germans  to 

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Woodbury's   Elementary    German 

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Woodbury's  Eclectic  German  Reader. 
Woodbury's  German  English  Reader. 
GiaubensAiee's  German  Reader. 
Glanbens kite's   Synthetic    German 
Grammar. 

Sanders'  German  and  English  Primer, 
Mess  is'  Sanders'  Phonetic  Speller. 
Mess  fir"  Sanders'  German  Speller  and 
Reader. 


PROGRESSIVE   SPANISH    READERS. 

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Libre  de  Lectura.     No.  i.  Libro  de  Lectura.    No.  2. 

Libro  de  Lectura.    No.  3. 
These  Readers  are  prepared  for  Schools  in  the  West  India  Islands,  Mexico, 
and  Spanish  South  American  States. 


54  J  709 


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